
Copyright}! . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ELEMENTS 

OF 

HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



BY 



MAUDE M. FRANK, A.M. 

INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH, DE WITT CLINTON HIGH SCHOOL, 
NEW YORK CITY 

AUTHOR OF " CONSTRUCTIVE EXERCISES IN ENGLISH," AND *' HIGH 
SCHOOL EXERCISES IN GRAMMAR*' 



LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 

FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK 

PRAIRIE AVE. AND 25TH STREET, CHICAGO 

1915 






Copyright, 1915, by 
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 






7€ 



DEC 2 1915 

©CI.A414873 

A, 1 



PREFACE 

The teacher of English in the high schools of 
to-day has varied and manifold duties. To the 
lessons in literature and written composition, 
which were the staple diet a decade ago, there 
must now be added persistent instruction in spell- 
ing, punctuation, grammar, and oral composition, 
all duly planned and graded for the secondary 
school. Furthermore, every well-ordered course 
in English must include some provision for dra- 
matic effort in the classroom if the work in oral 
expression is to be given its full value. 

The present volume contains material for study 
and practice in all these divisions of the subject, 
arranged with a view to affording the pupil as 
much growth-giving exercise as possible, and to 
economizing the time and energy of the teacher. 
The subject matter for composition, both oral 
and written, has been carefully chosen with 
the design of securing interest, for much ex- 
perience has convinced the writer that the value 
of such work is in exact proportion to the zest with 
which it is carried on. In the chapters dealing 
with such elementary but elusive matters as spell- 
ing, punctuation, capitalization, and word-forma- 
tion, the aim has been to furnish exercises provid- 
ing for a drill at once thorough and sufficiently un- 

iii 



iv PREFACE 

hackneyed to appeal to the pupil of high school 
age. The section in grammar, which makes use 
of the terminology recommended by the Joint 
Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature, has 
been planned to present the subject with the mini- 
mum of theory and the maximum of practice. 
The large number of exercises relating grammar 
to composition will, it is hoped, do something to- 
wards making grammatical knowledge "seem a 
more vital part of the student's general equip- 
ment. Finally, the section devoted to dramatic 
work, and including four short plays adapted from 
familiar classics read in the high school, may be 
used merely for classroom reading, the parts be- 
ing definitely assigned, or to add interest to the 
study of literature, by presentation in class with 
simple appropriate action. 

Acknowledgments are due to the following pub- 
lishers for courteous permission to print extracts 
from their respective publications : Messrs. Dou- 
bleday, Page and Company; the F. A. Stokes 
Company; and The Century Company; as well 
as to the authors who have given their per- 
sonal permission for the use of selections from 
their works. 



CONTENTS 

PART I 

Composition — Oral and Written 



CHAPTER 




PAGE 


I. 


Narration .... 


3 


II. 


The Paragraph 


19 


III. 


Description . 


27 


IV. 


Exposition .... 


39 


V. 


Argumentation 


48 


VI. 


Punctuation 


54 


VII. 


The Use of Capital Letters 


65 


VIII. 


Direct and Indirect Quota 






tion 


69 


IX. 


Letter-writing . 


75 


X. 


Spelling 


94 


XL 


Figures of Speech . 


104 


XII. 


Words and Word-formation . 
PART II 


in 



The Rules of Grammar and Practice 
in Applying Them 



XIII. The Sentence and Its Parts 

XIV. The Noun .... 



131 
141 



vi 


CONTENTS 








CHAPTER 






page 


XV. 


The Verb . 




I 5 8 


XVI. 


The Pronoun . 






196 


XVII. 


The Adjective . 






209 


XVIII. 


T\he Adverb 






2l6 


XIX. 


The Preposition 






219 


XX. 


The Conjunction 






222 


XXI. 


The Interjection 






225 


XXII. 


The Phrase 






226 


XXIII. 


The Clause 






233 


XXIV. 


Exercises in the Formation 






and Combination of 


Sen- 






tences 




24O 


XXV. 


Analysis 






247 



PART III 
Ten-minute Plays for the Classroom 

I. A Happening at Salem House 257 

II. The Wooden Horse . . 264 

III. The Escape of Cedric . . 270 

IV. The Return of Rip Van 

Winkle 277 



Index 287 



PART I 

COMPOSITION— ORAL AND 
WRITTEN 



CHAPTER I 

NARRATION 

1. The kind of composition which is used 
oftenest in everyday life is narration, or telling a 
story. We may repeat a story which has been told 
to us or which we have read; we may tell about 
incidents which we ourselves have known to 
happen; or we may, like writers of books, invent 
stories of our own. All narrative compositions 
should be interesting, and of course those in which 
we tell our own experiences or relate those of 
others should be accurate as well. 

Oral 
Exercise 1. When Hans Christian Andersen, 
the famous Danish writer of fairy tales, was in 
Switzerland, he had an experience of which he 
gives an account in his book, " The Story of My 
Life." Read the following selection carefully, and 
be prepared to tell the class the story of Andersen's 
little adventure. 

One of the first days after I had come to Geneva I 
wished to visit one of the families to whom I had a 
letter of introduction. I took a cab at my door and 
showed the driver the address on the letter. I sat in the 

3 



4 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

carriage, and we drove and drove up street and down 
street, beyond the old abandoned rampart. At length I 
was at the place. I got out of the carriage, looked about 
me and found myself in a street hard by the square from 
which I had set out. 

" Are you a Swiss? " I asked the driver. He answered, 
" Yes." 

" That cannot be true," said I. " I came from a long 
way off, from far up in the North, and there we have 
read of Switzerland, and heard of William Tell, and 
the noble, brave Swiss people stand in high honor with 
us. Now I come down here so that I may tell people at 
home truly about these brave people, and when I take 
my seat in a carriage over there the other side of the 
square, show the address where I want to go — it is only 
a few steps to drive, and I am carried all over town on 
a half-hour tour. It is a cheat, and no Swiss will cheat. 
You are not a Swiss! " 

The man at this was quite abashed. He was a young 
fellow, and burst out, " You shall not pay at all, or 
only pay what you please. The Swiss are honest folk ! " 
His words and voice touched me, and we parted good 
friends. 

Oral or Written 
Exercise 2. Tell a story , either invented, or 
suggested by your own experience, in which some 
one is, like the Swiss cab-driver, made ashamed 
of doing wrong by a well-chosen rebuke. 

Oral 

Exercise 3. The following poem was written 
to commemorate the heroism of a man who lost 



NARRATION 5 

his life in the Windsor Hotel fire in the city of 
New York. Read the poem carefully, and be 
prepared to tell the story of Guion. 

Guion 

Is it so hard to die in the glory and fury of fight? 
Sweet is the death for the flag — splendid the death when 

Fame 
Snatches the sinking torch, and lifts it alive, alight! — 
Let us remember his name who drank of a cup of flame 
Silently pledging Duty, and would not shirk 
Death in the plain day's work. 

Guion was running the lift 

There at the doomed hotel 

When the grim chance befell. 

Twenty years, day out, day in, 

Still the same had the day's work been: 

Up and down, steady and swift, 

At the thrill of the calling bell. 

Boy and man, and still the same; 

Then — the wild moment came. 

Fire and fear, and the rush, and the gush of the choking 

smoke ; 
Cries and the hoarse command, and the engine's clanging 

stroke ; 
Still, at the well-known call, in the wonted way, 
Up and down, steady and swift, 
Guion kept running the lift; 
Many and many a life is his gift 
That had else gone out that day. 



6 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

How it billowed, the surge of black 

On the delicate spring-time sky! 

The firemen knew they were come to the end of it all, — 

They were beaten, the roof must fall. 

Hands laid hold upon Guion: " You can't go back! " 

But he answered, " I'll stand by! " 

And again through the tumult — hark! 

Shrill, oh pitiful shrill, 

The throb of the bell that summoned, the agony-thrill, 

Calling — it fell on his soul like a spark. 

" One more trip! " said Guion; and steady and swift 

Mounted the man and the lift. 

— Save in the dust of ruin, that baffles ken, 

None saw Guion again. 

Year after year, when the great March sunsets flame, 
Let us remember his name. 

From Soldiers of the Light, by Helen Gray Cone. By 
permission of the author. 



Oral or Written 

Exercise 4. Tell the story of a hero who, like 
Guion, found his opportunity for heroism in the 
doing of the " plain day's work" 



Oral 

Exercise 5. The following incident happened 
in the early days of Oxford University in England, 
centuries ago. Be prepared to tell it to the class. 



NARRATION 7 

In the days when the biretta (or mortar-board) was 
the coveted badge of the Mastership of Arts, two very 
young Masters, having scraped up their pence to pur- 
chase the headgear, flaunted it together in a walk to 
Bagley Wood. Their names were Richard Hamond 
and Walter Trevelyn; and the day, though bright, was 
boisterous, with north-westerly squalls. On their way 
home across Folly Bridge a gust caught Hamond's 
biretta and blew it clean off his head into the river. He 
could not swim and had not a shilling to purchase an- 
other. Trevelyn glanced at his friend's face. " Of us 
two it is both or none," said he, plucked off his own 
biretta and sent it skimming into the flood. So they 
walked up St. Aldate's, into the town, sharing one 
another's humiliation, whiie the two hats danced in a 
bumping race down the flood to Iffley. 

A. Quiller-Couch: Oxford, in The Book of the Oxford 
Pageant. 



Oral or Written 

Exercise 6. Tell a story of friendship, for 
which "Both of Us or None" would he a good 
title. 

Oral 

Exercise 7. The following story of how a 
Highland servant helped his master out of a dif- 
ficulty is told in " The Legend of Montrose" by 
Sir Walter Scott. Be prepared to tell it to the 
class. 



8 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

A Scottish gentleman, Macdonald by name, was once 
dining with an English nobleman. On the table were 
six massive silver candlesticks. Some of the English 
guests present pitied the Scotch visitor, because he could 
see no such magnificence in his own poor country. Mac- 
donald, eager to uphold the honor of his native land, 
rashly declared that he had more candlesticks and better 
ones at home than were ever lighted in any English 
county. One of the Englishmen promptly wagered two 
hundred pounds that the boast could not be made good. 
Macdonald boldly accepted the wager, and the two men 
journeyed northward into Scotland. Upon reaching his 
home, Macdonald told his brother of the wager, and 
begged him to procure enough money to pay the forfeit, 
which would of course become due. But an old servant, 
overhearing the conversation, told his masters not to be 
cast down, for the wager would not be lost. When 
dinner was announced, beside each diner's chair stood a 
Highland soldier, holding in his right hand a sword, and 
in his left a blazing torch. The Englishman at once 
admitted that the living candlesticks had won the wager 
for his Scottish host. Adapted from Scott. 

Oral or Written 

Exercise 8. Tell a story for which the follow- 
ing title would be appropriate: "An Ingenious 
Way out of a Difficulty " 

Oral 

Exercise 9. Read the following poem and be 
prepared to tell how a king kept his word sacred. 



NARRATION 9 

Omar and the Persian 

The victor stood beside the spoil and by the grinning 
dead: 

" The land is ours, the foe is ours, now rest, my men," 
he said. 

But while he spoke there came a band of footsore, pant- 
ing men: 

" The latest prisoner, my lord, we took him in the 
glen, 

And left behind dead hostages that we would come 
again." 

The victor spoke : " Thou, Persian dog, hast cost more 

lives than thine. 
That was thy will, and thou shouldst die full thrice, if I 

had mine. 
Dost know thy fate, thy just reward?" The Persian 

bent his head. 
" I know both sides of victory, and only grieve," he 

said, 
" Because there will be none to fight 'gainst thee when I 

am dead. 

" No Persian faints at sight of Death, — we know his face 

too well, — 
He waits for us on mountain side, in town, or shelter'd 

dell; 
But I crave a cup of wine, thy first and latest boon, 
For I have gone three days athirst, and fear lest I may 

swoon, 
Or even wrong mine enemy by dying now, too soon." 



10 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

The cup was brought, but ere he drank, the Persian 

shudder'd white. 
Omar replied, " What fearest thou? The wine is clear 

and bright; 
We are no poisoners, not we, nor traitors to a guest. 
No dart behind, nor dart within, shall pierce thy gallant 

breast ; 
Till thou hast drain'd the draught, O foe, thou dost in 

safety rest." 

The Persian smil'd, with parched lips, upon the foemen 

round, 
Then pour'd the precious liquid out, untasted, on the 

ground. 

11 Till that is drunk, I live," said he, " and while I live, 

I fight. 
So, see you to your victory, for 'tis undone this night ; 
Omar, the worthy, battle fair is but thy god-like right." 

Up sprang a wrathful army then — Omar restrain'd them 

all, 
Upon no battle-field had rung more clear his martial call, 
The dead men's hair beside his feet as by a breeze was 

stirr'd, 
The farthest henchman in the camp the royal mandate 

heard : 
" Hold ! if there be a sacred thing, it is the warrior's 

word." 

From Twilight Legends, by Sarah Williams. 

Oral or Written 

Exercise 10. Tell a story of how a promise was 
kept at all costs. 



NARRATION 11 

Oral 

Exercise 11. The following selection is taken 
from "Letters and Recollections of Sir Walter 
Scott, ,} by Mrs. Hughes. Read it carefully, and 
be prepared to tell how Scottfs friendship with 
Mrs. Hughes began. 

When Sir Walter Scott came to London in 1808, 
he became acquainted with a lady named Mrs. Hayman, 
whom I often visited. Behind her house in Berkeley 
Square there was a sort of stable, at the entrance to which 
I always saw a half-starved dog. I had such a feeling 
of compassion for the poor forlorn creature that I always 
carried in my muff a parcel of bones in a newspaper 
for him, and as I visited Mrs. Hayman generally twice 
a week, the dog was by my gifts kept alive. His grati- 
tude was extreme; but Mrs. Hayman, whose only fault 
was a dislike to dogs, always quizzed me unmercifully, 
and told everyone to whom she introduced me of my 
folly, or greasiness, as she called it. 

On the morning when I made the acquaintance of Sir 
Walter Scott, he was sitting with her when I arrived. 
Immediately on my entrance she called out, " Well, have 
you been pampering your cur again? " When I answered 
in the affirmative she turned to Sir Walter and said, " I 
must tell you that this simpleton comes here twice or 
thrice a week, bringing with her a parcel of dirty bones 
with which she fills her nice, new muff, for a nasty, 
half-starved cur, and feeds the creature with them." He 
made no reply for a minute, but leaned back in his chair, 
gazing hard at me from under his shaggy brows, but 
with the most benevolent smile. Then he caught hold 



12 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

of my hand, exclaiming, "You and I must be friends! " 
And friends we were during the remainder of his life. 

In 1824, when I was visiting him at Abbotsford, he 
once asked me suddenly, " Do you know what made me 
take such a fancy to you?" I could only reply that I 
had not an idea, but that whatever it was, it was a most 
fortunate circumstance. He said, " Why, the dog and 
the muff — the dog in Berkeley Square! From that 
moment I was sure that we were in perfect sympathy, 
for I should have done just the same thing myself." 

Abridged from Letters and Recollections of Sir Walter 
Scott, by Mrs. Hughes. 

Oral or Written 
Exercise 12. Tell a story for which " How a 
Friendship Was Begun " would he a good title. 

2. Interesting happenings occur in the lives of 
people of all ages, schoolgirls and schoolboys in- 
cluded. Indeed, there are few happenings that 
cannot be made interesting in the telling. The 
great thing is to tell the story so that it shall seem 
real. A good narrative composition should make 
the reader feel as though he had had a share in the 
events told of. 

Written 

Exercise 13. From the following list choose 
a subject which belongs to your own experience, 
and write a short composition about it. 

1. How I earned my first dollar. 

2. Why I missed the train. 



NARRATION 13 

3. My first day in high school. 

4. My visit to the photographer. 

5. When I had to cook the dinner. 

6. Why I lost the prize. 

7. How I won the prize. 

8. My first visit to the theater. 

9. The examination I didn't pass. 
10. The game that our team lost. 

Oral or Written 

Exercise 14. Tell a short story which shows 
the truth of any one of the following proverbs. 

1. He that falls to-day may be up to-morrow. 

2. Better lose a jest than a friend. 

3. Who hunts many hares catches none. 

4. He that can reply calmly to an angry man is too 
hard for him. 

5. Great force is hidden in a sweet command. 

6. A stitch in time saves nine. 

7. Two wrongs do not make one right. 

8. If you would have your business done, go; if not, 
send. 

9. A small leak will sink a great ship. 

10. It is foolish to lay out money in a purchase of 
regret. 

Oral 

Exercise 15. The following selection tells how 
Rip Van Winkle was recognized upon his return 
to the village. Be prepared to tell the story of 
Rip's reappearance as the neighbor who recog- 
nized him might have related it to another villager. 



14 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

The honest man could contain himself no longer. He 
caught his daughter and her child in his arms. " I am 
your father! " cried he — "Young Rip Van Winkle once 
— old Rip Van Winkle now — Does nobody know poor 
Rip Van Winkle!" 

All stood amazed, until an old woman, tottering out 
from among the crowd, put her hand to her brow, and 
peering under it in his face for a moment, exclaimed, 
"Sure enough! it is Rip Van Winkle — it is himself. 
Welcome home again, old neighbor. Why, where have 
you been all these twenty long years?" 

Rip's story was soon told, for the whole twenty years 
had been to him but as one night. 

From Rip Van Winkle, by Washington Irving. 

Exercise 16. The seventeenth century poet- 
clergyman, George Herbert, was a skilled mu- 
sician. The following selection, written in the 
quaint English of the time, tells of an experience 
he met with while he was walking to the town of 
Salisbury to spend the afternoon with some 
musical friends. Try to tell the story of his ex- 
perience as he himself might have related it upon 
his arrival at Salisbury. 

He saw a poor man with a poorer horse which was 
fallen under his load. They were both in distress and 
needed present help. This Mr. Herbert perceiving, put 
off his canonical coat, and helped the poor man to 
unload, and after to load his horse. The poor man 
blest him for it, and he blest the poor man, and was so 
like the Good Samaritan that he gave him money to 



NARRATION 15 

refresh both himself and his horse, and told him 
that if he loved himself, he should be merciful to his 
beast. 

And at his coming to his musical friends at Salisbury, 
they began to wonder that Mr. George Herbert, which 
used to be so trim and clean, came into that company 
so soiled and discomposed. But he told them the occa- 
sion. And when one of the company told him he had 
disparaged himself by so dirty an employment, his 
answer was: that the thought of what he had done would 
prove music to him at midnight, and the omission of it 
would have upbraided and made discord in his conscience 
whensoever he should pass by that place. 

From The Lives of the Poets, by Isaak Walton. 

Exercise 17. The following selection tells a 
well-known anecdote of the boyhood of Oliver 
Goldsmith, the famous author of " The Vicar 
of Wakefield." Imagine that you are Squire 
Featherston f and tell the story of Oliver's mistake, 
as though you were relating it to a friend. 

Having set off for school on a borrowed hack, and 
equipped with boundless riches in the shape of a guinea 
given him by a friend, he amused himself by viewing 
the neighboring country seats on the road, intending 
ultimately to put up like a gentleman at an inn. Night 
fell, and he found himself at Ardagh, halfway on his 
journey. Casting about for information as to " the best 
house," that is to say, the best inn in the neighborhood, 
he unluckily lit upon one Cornelius Kelly, who had been 
fencing-master to the Marquis of Granby, but, what is 
more to the purpose, was a confirmed wag and practical 



16 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

joker. Amused with Oliver's schoolboy swagger, he 
gravely directed him to the mansion of the local magnate, 
Squire Featherston. To Squire Featherston's the lad 
accordingly repaired, and called lustily for someone to 
take his horse. Being ushered into the presence of the 
supposed landlord and his family, he ordered a good 
supper, invited the rest to share it, treated them to a 
bottle or two of wine, and finally retired to rest, leaving 
careful injunctions that a hot cake should be prepared 
for his breakfast on the morrow. His host, who was a 
humorist, and moreover knew something of his visitor's 
father, never undeceived him, and it was not until he 
quitted the supposed inn next day that he learned, to his 
confusion, that he had been entertained at a private 
house. 

From The Life of Goldsmith, by Austin Dobson. 

Exercise 18. Tell the story of Hans Christian 
Andersen's experience with the cab driver (page 
3) as the repentant driver might have told it to 
a comrade. 

Exercise 19. Read the following legend and 
tell the story of the Golden Touch as King Midas 
might have told it to a fellow-monarch as a warn- 
ing against the folly of loving gold too well. 

Bacchus, the god of wine, on a certain occasion found 
his old schoolmaster and foster-father, Silenus, missing. 
The old man had wandered away and had been found 
by some peasants, who carried him to their king, Midas. 
Midas recognized him and treated him hospitably, enter- 
taining him for ten days and nights with an unceasing 



NARRATION 17 

round of jollity. On the eleventh day he brought Silenus 
back, and restored him in safety to his pupil. There- 
upon Bacchus offered Midas his choice of a reward, 
whatever he might wish. He asked that whatever he 
might touch should be changed into gold. Bacchus con- 
sented, though sorry that he had not made a better choice. 
Midas went his way, rejoicing in his new-acquired power, 
which he hastened to put to the test. He could scarce 
believe his eyes when, he found a twig of an oak, which 
he plucked from the branch, become gold in his hand. 
He took up a stone; it changed to gold. He touched a 
sod; it did the same. He took an apple from the tree; 
you would have thought he had robbed the garden of the 
Hesperides. His joy knew no bounds, and as soon as he 
got home he ordered the servants to set a splendid repast 
on the table. Then he found to his dismay that, whether 
he touched bread, it hardened in his hands; or put a 
morsel to his lips, it defied his teeth. He took a glass of 
wine, but it flowed down his throat like melted gold. 

In consternation at the unprecedented affliction he 
strove to divest himself of his power; he hated the gift 
he had lately coveted. But all in vain ; starvation seemed 
to await him. He raised his arms, all shining with gold, 
in prayer to Bacchus, begging to be delivered from his 
glittering destruction. Bacchus, merciful deity, heard and 
consented. " Go," said he, " to the River Pactolus, trace 
the stream to its fountain-head, there plunge your head 
and body in, and wash away your fault and its punish- 
ment." He did so, and scarce had he touched the waters 
before the gold-creating power passed into them, and the 
river sands became changed into gold, as they remain to 
this day. 

Slightly abridged from Bulfinch's Age of Fable, 



18 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

3. Sometimes stories end in a way that does 
not please the reader. This was the case when the 
famous novelist Thackeray, then a boy of twelve, 
read Scott's Ivanhoe for the first time. He was 
very indignant because Rowena, and not Rebecca, 
became the hero's bride, and he determined that 
when he grew up he would write a story for him- 
self in which Ivanhoe should finally marry the 
beautiful Rebecca. The amusing tale Rebecca and 
Rowena was the result of this determination. 
And perhaps there are many readers who, though 
they are unable to do as Thackeray did, would 
like to change the ending of some familiar story, 
in order to do justice to a favorite character. 

Written 

Exercise 20. Invent a different ending for 
some well-known story, such as " The Legend of 
Sleepy Hollow/' " The Pied Piper," " Rip Van 
Winkle," or any familiar fairy tale. 



CHAPTER II 

THE PARAGRAPH 

4. A group of sentences relating to one topic 
is called a paragraph. The first word of every 
paragraph should be indented: that is, set in about 
one inch to the right of the page margin. Correct 
paragraphing is a great help to the reader, be- 
cause by means of it the eye can readily see the 
important thought-divisions of a subject. 

Oral 

Exercise 21. Each of the following passages, 
as originally written, was divided into several 
paragraphs. Tell where you think an indention 
should be made, to mark the beginning of a new 
paragraph. 

i. The fight was over at last, the dragon was slain, 
but the victory had cost Beowulf his life. His wounds 
began to swell and burn, and he felt the poison penetrate 
his body. He was forced to lie down and rest against 
the rocky face of the mountain, and Viglaf unloosed his 
helmet and brought him water to drink. Then Beowulf 
said, " Now my last day is come and my chief sorrow is 
that I have no son to succeed me. Fifty years have I 
ruled over this people; none of the neighboring kings 
durst approach my borders with an army and challenge 

19 



20 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

me to battle ; peace dwelt in my kingdom, and I strove to 
do right and justice to all men. Now I call on you, 
Viglaf, to grant my last request. Go to the dragon's 
den, and bring out his treasure, that I may look on the 
reward of victory before I die." Viglaf did as the king 
bade him, and made his way into the dragon's cave. The 
floor glittered with gold ; there were piles, too, of ancient 
vessels and rusty helmets, and stores of rings and brace- 
lets, and over all hung a golden banner embroidered with 
charms of victory. 

2. While the New Learning was stirring England, 
and Greek was being for the first time taught in Oxford, 
a young student of fourteen came to the University there. 
This student was named Thomas More. He was the 
son of a lawyer who became a judge, and as a little boy 
he had been a page in the household of Morton, the 
Archbishop of Canterbury. The Archbishop was quick 
to see that the boy was clever. " This child here waiting 
at the table, whoever will live to see it, will prove a 
marvellous man," he would say. And so he persuaded 
More's father to send the boy to Oxford to study law. 
Thomas remained only two years at Oxford, for old Sir 
John, fearing he was learning too much Greek and litera- 
ture and not enough law, called his son home and sent 
him to study law in London. It must have been a dis- 
appointment to the boy to be taken from the clever friends 
he had made in Oxford, and from the books and studies 
that he loved, to be set instead to read dry law-books. 
But Thomas More was most sunny-tempered. Nothing 
made him sulky or cross. So now he settled down quietly 
to his new life, and in a very short time became a famous 
and learned lawyer. 



THE PARAGRAPH 21 

Exercise 22. The sentences in each of the fol- 
lowing sections were originally grouped so as to 
form paragraphs. Tell where you think each 
paragraph should begin. 

i. In time nearly "every town of any size in England 
had its own cycle of plays, but only four of these have 
come down to us. 

These are the York, the Chester, the Coventry, and 
the Wakefield cycles. 

These last are also called the Townley plays, from 
the name of the family who possessed the manuscript for 
a long time. 

Year after year the same guild acted the same play. 

And it really seemed as if the pageant was in many 
cases chosen to suit the players. 

The water-drawers of Chester, for instance, acted the 
Flood. 

In York, the shipwrights acted the building of the ark, 
the fishmongers the Flood, and the gold-beaters and 
money-workers the three Kings out of the East. 

The members of each guild tried to make their 
pageant as fine as they could. 

Indeed, they were expected to do so, for in 1394 we 
find the Mayor of York ordering the craftsmen " to bring 
forth their pageants in order and course by good players, 
well arrayed and openly speaking, upon pain of losing 
100 shillings, to be paid to the Chamber without any 
pardon." 

2. Upon one of the highest rocks, deep down in the 
bed of the Rhine, was stored a great lump of pure gold, 
brighter and more dazzling than any other treasure ever 
known. 



22 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

It was also more wonderful than any other gold, be- 
cause it contained the power of making its owner master 
of all the world. 

This treasure had lain undisturbed in the river's bed 
for so long that it had come to be known as the Rhine- 
Gold. 

It was watched over by the Rhine-Daughters, in whose 
care their father had left it. 

This was their sole duty — to keep guard night and day 
lest some thief should come and steal the priceless 
treasure. 

One bright morning the maidens seemed unusually 
merry. 

They darted in and out the caverns with a speed which 
left the flying-fish far behind. 

They laughed and chattered and sang, but glanced from 
time to time up at the precious Rhine-Gold, to see if it 
still glittered upon its protecting crag. 

Presently their happy noise at play attracted a passer-by, 
who clambered upon one of the jutting rocks to see what 
it was all about. 

The new-comer stood in the greatest contrast to the 
three laughing girls. 

He was a dwarf, little and ugly and crooked, with a 
humped back and long claw-like fingers to match the 
eager, grasping look in his small eyes. 

He was Alberich, of the race of the Nibelungs — the 
earth-dwarfs, who dug for treasure in the underground 
caverns, and hammered and toiled without ceasing for 
the gold that never did them any good. 

3. Long years ago there lived in the town of Antwerp 
a beautiful maiden named Elsa. 



THE PARAGRAPH 23 

Her father had been Duke of Brabant, of which state 
Antwerp was the capital. 

At his death Elsa and her young brother Gottfried 
had been left to the care of a certain Count Frederick 
of Telramund, who was to rule in the place of Gottfried 
until the latter was old enough to come to the throne. 

For a time all went well. Count Frederick was not 
an ill-disposed man. 

He ruled the country wisely, and treated the brother 
and sister with kindness. 

None who watched them at this time could have dreamt 
of the evil influences which were soon to disturb their 
lives. 

After the death of their father and mother, Elsa had 
sought to fill the place of parent as well as sister to Gott- 
fried, who was younger than herself. 

A most warm and close affection between the brother 
and sister was the result. 

They could hardly bear to be out of each other's sight. 

5. Many paragraphs contain a sentence in 
which the topic of the paragraph is plainly stated. 
This sentence may be called the topic sentence. 
Very often the topic sentence is placed at the 
beginning of the paragraph, although it is some- 
times preceded by other sentences. 

Oral 

Exercise 23. Find the topic sentences in the 
following paragraphs. 

I. Thus Ithaca was a good island to live in. The 
summer was long, and there was hardly any winter; 



24 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

only a few cold weeks, and then the swallows came back, 
and the plains were like a garden, all covered with wild 
flowers — violets, lilies, narcissus, and roses. With the 
blue sky and the blue sea, the island was beautiful. White 
temples stood on the shores; and the Nymphs, a sort of 
fairies, had their little shrines built of stone, with wild 
rose-bushes hanging over them. 

From Tales of Troy and Greece, by Andrew Lang. 

2. In olden days the most usual reason for a journey, 
next to business, was a pilgrimage. Sometimes this was 
simply an act of religion or devotion. Clad in a simple 
gown, and perhaps with bare feet, the pilgrim set out. 
Carrying a staff in his hand, and begging for food and 
shelter by the road, he took his way to the shrine of 
some saint. There he knelt and prayed and felt himself 
blessed in the deed. Sometimes it was an act of penance 
for some great sin done; sometimes of thanksgiving for 
some great good received, some great danger passed. 

From English Literature for Boys and Girls, by H. E. 
Marshall. 

3. Now, the time drew near for the christening party, 
and the king and queen were sitting at breakfast in their 
summer parlor talking over it. It was a splendid room, 
hung with portraits of the royal ancestors. There was 
Cinderella, the grandmother of the reigning monarch, 
with her little foot in her glass slipper thrust out before 
her. There was the Marquis de Carabas, who, as every- 
one knows, was raised to the throne as prince consort 
after his marriage with the daughter of the king of the 
period. On the arm of the throne was seated his cele- 
brated cat, wearing boots. There, too, was a portrait of 



THE PARAGRAPH 25 

a beautiful lady, sound asleep: this was Madame La 
Belle au Bois-dormant, also an ancestress of the royal 
family. Many other pictures of celebrated persons were 
hanging on the walls. 

From Prince Prigio, by Andrew Lang. 

4. Odin knew all about this prophecy, for few things 
either past or to come were hidden from him. His 
favorite seat was oh the top of a high hill, from which he 
could overlook a great part of the world. There he had 
placed a throne, from which he could observe the doings 
of gods and mortals. What he could not see himself 
was told him by his two ravens, Huginn and Muninn, 
whom he sent all over the world for news. They would 
fly back to Odin and perch on his shoulders, and whisper 
in his ear the secrets of the world. 

From Gods and Heroes of the North, by Alice Zimmern. 

5. David died in the year 1153. His brave and 
amiable son, Henry, had died two or three years before 
his father. David was a most excellent sovereign. He 
would leave his sport of hunting, or anything in which 
he was engaged at the time, if the meanest of his subjects 
came to complain of any wrong which he had received; 
nor would he resume his amusement till he had seen the 
poor man redressed. He is also much praised by his- 
torians, who in those times were chiefly clergymen, for his 
great bounty to the church. He founded bishoprics, and 
built and endowed many monasteries, which he vested 
with large grants of lands out of the patrimony of the 
kings. 

From Tales of a Grandfather, by Sir Walter Scott. 



26 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Written 

Exercise 24. Write a paragraph on one of the 
subjects given in the following list. Begin the 
paragraph with a topic sentence. 

i. The Boy Scouts. 

2. The Camp Fire Girls. 

3. My club. 

4. The importance of trifles. 

5. A favorite picture. 

6. The school I used to attend. 

7. An indoor sport. 

8. My favorite study. 

9. A new invention. 
10. Stamp collecting. 



CHAPTER III 

DESCRIPTION 

6. Description is a kind of composition in 
which we try to call up in the minds of others a 
clear and vivid picture of some object or scene. 
The following paragraphs are good examples of 
descriptive writing. 

I. It was a very small room, with a ceiling so low that 
the tall lodger could only just stand upright with safety; 
perhaps three inches intervened between his head and the 
plaster, which was cracked, grimy, cobwebby. A small 
scrap of weedy carpet lay in front of the fireplace; else- 
where the chinky boards were unconcealed. The furni- 
ture consisted of a round table, which kept such imperfect 
balance on its central support that the lamp entrusted to 
it looked in a dangerous position, of three small cane- 
bottomed chairs, a small wash-hand stand with sundry 
rude appurtenances, and a chair-bedstead which the tenant 
opened at the hour of repose, and spread with certain 
primitive-trappings at present kept in a cupboard. There 
was no bookcase, but a few hundred battered volumes 
were arranged, some on the floor and some on a rough 
chest. The weather was too characteristic of an English 
spring to make the empty grate agreeable to the eye. 

From The New Grub Street, by George Gissing. 

27 



28 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

2. Immediately before him ... sat one old man 
with his handkerchief smoothly laid upon his knees, who 
did enjoy the moment, or acted enjoyment of it. He was 
one on whose large frame many years, for he was over 
eighty, had made small havoc. He was still an upright, 
burly, handsome figure, with an open, ponderous brow, 
round which clung a few, though very few, thin grey 
locks. The coarse black gown of the hospital, the breeches 
and buckled shoes became him well; and as he sat with 
his hands folded on his staff, and his chin resting on his 
hands, he was such a listener as most musicians would be 
glad to have. 

From The Warden, by Anthony Trollope. 

3. Let me see if I can describe him to you. I should 
not say that he was a tall man, and yet |iis dignity of 
presence makes him seem of more than average height. 
When he sits, there is, just about the shoulders, the 
suggestion of the student who has bent for a lifetime 
over books. He is no longer a young man, for his hair 
and beard are white; yet one would not call him old; 
there is something in the penetrating eyes that would 
make it impossible to do that. His nose is long and 
straight, and the beard emphasizes the length of his face. 
In a word, Anatole France is a man you would not pass 
in the street without wondering who the distinguished 
foreigner might be. 

From An Artist-Photographer's Impressions of Anatole 
France, by A. L. Coburn. 

7. In many descriptions the writer chooses only 
such details as help to give a single definite im- 
pression. For example, in the first of the following 
selections, the details all give the impression of dis- 



DESCRIPTION 29 

comfort; in the second, they give the impression 
of dignified luxury. What are the impressions 
given in the third and fourth selections? 

1. It was lonely up in the garret by himself. A hot 
wind had sprung up, and it crooned through the keyhole 
drearily; " oo-woo-oo" it cried, and the sound drenched 
him in a vague depression. The splotch of yellow light 
had shifted round to the fireplace; Janet had kindled a 
fire there last winter, and the ashes had never been re- 
moved, and now the light lay, yellow and vivid, on a 
red clinker of coal and a charred piece of stick. A piece 
of glossy white paper had been flung in the untidy grate, 
and in the hollow curve of it a thin silt of dust had 
gathered — the light showed it plainly. All these things 
the boy marked and was subtly aware of their unpleasant- 
ness. 

From The House with the Green Shutters, by G. B. 
Douglas. 

2. The great drawing room in which they are sitting, 
and which Mrs. Browning inhabits all day long, is so 
lofty and spacious as to provide almost too massive a 
setting for her tiny little person. The walls, whence 
pictures of saints look down out of ancient carved black 
frames, are hung with many-colored tapestries. From 
solemn bookcases filled with learned books; small tables 
piled with modern volumes, — past heavy antique furni- 
ture, quaint old mirrors, curiously-wrought chairs, — by 
busts, casts, portraits, paintings of every date, the eye 
turns, through dark shadows and subdued lights, to the 
flower-decked balcony without, and the tall gray church 
of San Felice opposite. 

From A Day with Mrs. Browning, by May Byron. 



30 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

3. Thousands of human beings were pouring over the 
bridge. But what chiefly struck my attention was a double 
row of carts and wagons, the generality drawn by horses 
as large as elephants, each row striving hard in a different 
direction, and not unfrequently brought to a standstill. 
Oh! the cracking of whips, the shouts and oaths of the 
carters, and the grating of wheels upon the enormous 
stones that formed the pavement. In fact, there was a wild 
hurly-burly upon the bridge, which nearly deafened me. 

From Lavengro, by George Borrow. 

4. The day was lead-colored ; the road had stone fac- 
tories alongside of it, — grey, dull-colored rows of stone 
cottages belonging to these factories, and then we came 
to poor, hungry-looking fields ; stone fences everyhere, and 
trees nowhere. Haworth is a long, straggling village ; one 
steep, narrow street — so steep that the flag-stones with 
which it is paved are placed endways, so that the horses' 
feet may have something to cling to, and not slip down 
backwards, which if they did, they would soon reach 
Keighley. But if the horses had cats' feet and claws, 
they would do all the better. 

From The Life of Charlotte Bronte, by Mrs. Gaskell. 

Written 

Exercise 25. Write a paragraph of description 
on one of the subjects given in the following list. 
Include in your description only such details as 
seem to you interesting. Try to convey a definite 
impression. 

1. The strangest pet I ever saw. 

2. The pleasantest room I know. 





DESCRIPTION 


3- 


The dog I know best. 


4- 


A successful snapshot. 


5- 


A citizen of to-morrow. 


6. 


The finest public building in our town. 


7- 


The reading room of the public library. 


8. 


An original birthday gift. 


9- 


The captain of our team. 


o. 


The florist's shop. 



31 



Oral or Written 

Exercise 26. Describe a clever cartoon. (Let 
the best artist of the class copy one on the black- 
board.) 

8. A description may give us not only one pic- 
ture, but a series of pictures, or a picture of a 
changing scene. The following selection shows 
how motion may be included in description. 

It was good to go lazily, for life that morning was a 
delight. Shimmering tree-shadows, blue from the high 
light, zebra-striped the highway; the long, thin avenue 
of it opened, shortened, climbed, descended, then length- 
ened again ; and ever his splendid path into the unknown 
stretched its knowing white finger ahead.' By the sides 
of the road gray aspens and osiers showed him their 
silvery edges; here and there a brook reflected the sky 
under a lichened bridge; bird-twitters took his ear, farm- 
steads winked with all their panes at him, friendly dogs 
came rushing out to salute him and to cheer him on. 

From Chateau Royal, by J. H. Yoxall. 



32 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Oral or Written 

Exercise 27. Describe as vividly as you can 
a scene suggested by one of the following topics. 
Let your description include action. 

1. My classmate trying to solve a problem. 

2. My little brother at play. 

3. Supper-time in the barnyard. 

4. The noon hour in the school playground. 

5. Listening to the election returns. 

6. Waiting for the train. 

7. The classroom during an examination. 

8. A dog learning a new trick. 

9. Beginners in the gymnasium. 
10. Skaters. 

9. Long descriptions, or even single para- 
graphs consisting wholly of description are 
found in books of the present day far less 
often than in the works of earlier authors, who 
wrote in times when readers had more leisure, 
and perhaps more patience. A descriptive word 
or phrase skillfully chosen can often make us see 
the desired picture, or receive the desired impres- 
sion, quite as well as though three or four sen- 
tences had been used. When Mr. Kipling tells 
us that a bull was " shouldering his way through 
the many-colored crowd," he gives us in those 
few words a very distinct impression of the scene 
he wishes us to see; and when we are told of a 
newly-introduced character in a novel that " his 



DESCRIPTION 33 

face shows hawk-like against the sun-bronzed 
leaves," we do not need a longer description to 
prepare us for acquaintance with him. 

Oral 
Exercise 28. Tell which of the words enclosed 
within the parentheses in each of the following 
sentences makes the better picture, or produces 
the stronger impression. 

i. We were charmed at first sight with the quaint 
bridge spanning the (shining) (silvery) river. 

2. Now we see the feathery tassels of the beech 
(bursting) (coming) out of their brown (coverings) 
(husks). 

3. There was the water-carrier (pouring) (sluicing) 
water on the dry road from his goat-skin bag. 

4. What he loved was the game for its own sake — the 
(stealthy) (secret) prowl through the dark gullies and 
(lanes) (streets). 

5. Kim (passed) (clicked) round the self-registering 
turnstile. 

6. The huge (gray) (mouse-colored) Brahminee bull 
of the ward was (shouldering) (making) his way through 
the many-colored crowd. 

7. A (blinding) (heavy) snow-storm now adds to our 
discomfort, but we (walk) (trudge) steadily on, and are 
presently rewarded by the sight of a (strip) (piece) of 
blue sky, the herald of fairer weather. 

8. Cattle (feed) (browse) on the hillside; a (sound) 
(tinkle) of church-bells is wafted to us over the water, 
and the peaceful scene brings contentment to the soul. 

9. It is hard work for a tenderfoot to (go) (trail) 



34 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

through sand and (struggle) (travel) through brush- 
wood with a (blazing) (hot) sun overhead and sixty or 
seventy pounds to carry. 

10. The man (hurried) (dashed) out bareheaded as 
a big (landau) (carriage) with (several) (four) native 
troopers behind it, and a tall, black-haired man (came) 
(swung) out. 

ii. All that could be seen was the (rough) (fur- 
rowed) trunk whose bark was split and (scarred) 
(marked) by weather and decay. 

12. Even as she was speaking there was a (disturb- 
ance) (bustle) and the audience all (crouched) (settled) 
down in their places, for in (stalked) (walked) Mr. 
and Mrs. Rufus Lynx. 

13. She was climbing (slowly) (lazily) over the 
stone fence back of the garden, when a very (puffy) (fat) 
toad on the opposite side attracted her attention. 

14. In a few moments a pair of eyes (peeped) (looked) 
out of cover, then another pair, and another; furry noses 
(smelled) (snuffed) the air, and round eyes (peered) 
(looked) anxiously about. 

15. The air was (thick) (dark) with (numbers) 
(scores) of little brown bats, who soon (tucked) (put) 
themselves away behind leaves, where they clung by their 
wing hooks, like cloaks. 

16. No bird in the woods builds so (shabby) (unsatis- 
factory) a nest; it is the merest makeshift — a loose 
(scaffolding) (structure) of twigs through which the 
eggs can be seen. 

17. A loose (stone) (bowlder) lay in the middle, and 
on the edge next the stream were three or four large 
natural wash-basins (dug) (scooped) out of the rock, 
and ever filled ready for use, 



DESCRIPTION 35 

1 8. Here we (placed) (planted) our flag of smoke, 
and (feathered) (lined) our nest with hemlock boughs 
and ferns. 

19. The bird (went) (hopped) along the bough to a 
small cavity near the trunk, when he (put) (thrust) in 
his head and (took) (pulled) out some object and fell to 
eating it. 

20. A (bright-colored) (flame-colored) oriole (flew) 
(shot) over, and (sitting) (perching) on the old apple- 
tree, gave some notes like a bugle-call. 

Exercise 29. Change the words enclosed within 
parentheses in the following sentences into words 
that make better pictures. 

Example : Instead of saying, " The boy was going 
across the quarry, falling into its shallow 
hollows, and getting out of them," we can 
make better pictures by saying, " The 
boy was scurrying across the quarry, 
stumbling into its shallow hollows, and 
leaping out of them." 

1. Nothing is more picturesque than these birds, as 
they (fly) above the stone chimney of some half-ruined 
house. 

2. The oriole has a temper to match his (bright) 
plumage, and fights with a will. 

3. He is a very restless bird, (looking) about con- 
tinually for seeds and insects. 

4. I have often seen these birds (gathered) under 
stone walls, and once found a (number) feeding in the 
bottom of a dry ditch, 



36 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

5. The shrike will also try to (get) cage birds that 
are hung out of doors. 

6. Many flowers and vines have (come) up under 
the shelter of the old fence. 

7. The (fall) of the rain from the eaves and the 
irregular (flow) from a broken waterspout played 
separate tunes. 

8. A pair of (wet) shoes lay at different angles where 
they had been thrown off. 

9. The hare (ran) across the path and (went) into 
his burrow. 

10. A bat was (flying) about the rafters and 
there was a (movement) of little feet over the rough 
floor. 

11. She (passed) slowly up and down the garden 
paths (removing) a dead leaf here and there. 

12. (Large) trees with (rough) trunks grew along 
the sides of the road. 

13. Little creatures were (moving) about in the hay, 
and occasionally (touching) my face or ears with a bat- 
like wing or whisking tail. 

14. The gray squirrels (sit) upon her shoulders and 
(look) in her pockets for nuts. 

15. No sooner were the candles (put) out than the 
pony left his clover to (eat) the young carrots. 

16. I must have (slept) in my chair, for it seemed only 
a moment when the door opened and Jim (came) in, 
evidently glad to escape from the storm. 

17. Going to the window, she hurriedly (drew) back 
the curtain; the lake was (shining) in the moonlight. 

18. The young (evergreens) look bewitching, covered 
with their (white) garlands. 

19. The (light) of the red charcoal as it went from 



DESCRIPTION 37 

hand to hand lit up the (small) eyes and the high 
Chinese cheek-bones. 

20. The two (walked) lazily along, the boy (eating) 
his stick of sugar cane. 

Imaginative Description 

10. It is possible to describe what one has seen 
with the mind's eye only. Many good descrip- 
tions in famous books are of this character. 
Stevenson, for instance, had never seen with his 
bodily eye the " tall, strong, heavy, nut-brown 
man; his tarry pigtail falling over the shoulders of 
his soiled blue coat; his hands ragged and scarred, 
with black, broken nails; and the saber-cut across 
one cheek a dirty livid white " whom he describes 
in the first chapter of Treasure Island. But 
we have a lifelike picture of Jim Hawkins's un- 
welcome guest, because the author had in his own 
mind a clear idea of the old pirate's appearance, 
before beginning to describe him to his readers. 
In order to see clearly what does not actually 
exist we must exercise our power of imagination 
rather than our power of observation. 

Written 

Exercise 30. Write a short composition on a 
subject selected from the following list. 

1. Describe an effective cartoon which you would 
suggest for the next number of the school paper. 

2. Tell how you would represent one of the charac- 



38 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

ters in some well-known fairy-tale, if you were an artist 
illustrating the story. 

3. Imagine that you are the author of a schoolboy 
story of the present day, and write a paragraph describ- 
ing the hero. • 

4. Write a paragraph describing another character 
whom you might introduce in the same story. 

5. Write a description of a children's play-room as 
you think it should be equipped. 

Exercise 31. Write a short description of an 
imaginary picture for which one of the following 
titles would be appropriate. 



I. 


Fast Friends. 


6. 


In Trouble. 


2. 


The Home-coming. 


7. 


In Luck. 


3. 


Summer in the City. 


8. 


Ready ! 


4- 


Waiting. 


9. 


Hard Work. 


5. 


Too Late. 


10. 


A Beginner. 



CHAPTER IV 
EXPOSITION 

11. Exposition is a kind of composition in 
which our aim is to explain. In exposition we 
may show how a thing is done, give the meaning 
of a word or of an expression, set forth the char- 
acteristics of a class of objects, sketch a person's 
character, tell what we believe to be the value of 
a plan or of a book; in short, explain any process 
or any idea. An exposition may consist of a few 
words, as, for example, a definition of a plane 
figure; or may fill an entire volume, as in the case 
of a scientific work, such as Tyndall's Forms of 
Water. 

The different kinds of exposition mentioned 
above are illustrated in the following examples. 

I. My work was to cover the pots of paste-blacking, 
first with a piece of oil-paper, and then with a piece of 
blue paper; to tie them round with a string, and then 
to clip the paper close and neat, all round, until it looked 
as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary's shop. 
When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained 
this pitch of perfection, I was to paste on each a label, 
and then go on again with more pots. 

From A Fragment of Autobiography, by Charles 
Dickens. 

39 



40 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

2. Literature really means letters, for it comes from a 
Latin word Uttera, meaning a letter of the alphabet. 
Words are made by letters of the alphabet being set to- 
gether, and our literature again by words being set 
together; hence the name. 

From The Child's History of English Literature, by 
H. E. Marshall. 

3. How shall we go to work to learn foreign lan- 
guages? The answer is as simple as the prescription for 
reading English. Open a book written in the foreign 
language and take each word in order through a whole 
sentence. Then read that same sentence in a good trans- 
lation. Then write down all the words that seem to be 
nouns and all the words that seem to be verbs. After 
that read the sections in the grammar about verbs and 
nouns. The other parts of speech will take care of them- 
selves for a while. Then try another sentence. I know 
one young person who read through a French book and 
got at its meaning by guessing at the words and then 
returning over those which appeared oftenest and which, 
of course, were the commonest. It is possible by a com- 
parison of the many uses of the same word to squeeze a 
meaning out of it. The dictionary and the grammar 
will give the rest. 

From A Guide to Reading, by John Macy. 

4. Character, which is one of the few Greek words 
that have come down to us unchanged by time, is the 
cutting or scratching of a surface. The furrowing of 
rocks by glaciers, and the incised pattern on a bit of 
pottery, are instances of character; and other instances 
are the hieroglyphics on an obelisk, and the marks where 



EXPOSITION 41 

the burglar tried to open the safe with a jimmy. Charac- 
ter is that record, evidence, or inscription, which is cut or 
scratched, for better or worse, on the life of each of us. 
It began to be cut before we were born; but we go on 
with the cutting of it until we die, adding here and erasing 
there. And then, when we are dead, as one gives a char- 
acter to a servant who is leaving in the hope of bettering 
himself, so our friends will give us a character. But the 
character which they give us, cut not on us but on our 
gravestones, will not be our true character. The real 
epitaph is that which a man cuts in his lifetime, for him- 
self, on himself. 

From The Young People. 

5. These lemurs are a gentle and loving race of 
creatures, which run on all fours like cats, and have none 
of the mischievous half-reasoning pranks of monkeys. 
They must have crept down long, long ago from the 
great battlefield of Europe and Asia, and taken refuge 
in the forests of South Africa and India, and especially 
in the Island of Madagascar, where they were sheltered 
from the attacks of larger and fiercer animals. They are 
splendid climbers, with very sensitive tips to their fingers, 
which are often of different lengths, and many of them 
have eyes with pupils which expand and contract like 
those of a cat, enabling them to see well by day and 
night, while a quick sense of hearing warns them of 
any danger near. 

From Winners in Life's Race, by A. Buckley. 

6. Jackson was a youth of exemplary habits, of in- 
domitable will, and undoubted courage. He was not 
what is nowadays termed brilliant, but he was one of 
those untiring, matter-of-fact persons, who would never 



42 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

give up an undertaking until he had accomplished his 
object. Though he learned slowly, what he got into his 
head he never forgot. He was not quick to decide, ex- 
cept when excited, and then, when he made up his mind 
to do a thing, he did it on short notice and in quick 

time. 

From Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War, 
by G. A. R. Henderson. 

Oral 
Exercise 32. I. Explain an amusing indoor 
game, such as " Proverbs" or " Twenty Ques- 
tions," so that your hearers will understand it well 
enough to he able to play it. 

2. Name the chief qualities that make a student 
popular with his schoolmates. Explain how these 
qualities can be shown in school. 

3. // you were allowed to subscribe to any 
magazine you might select, which one would you 
choose, and why? 

4. Give the names of five books you would 
like to add to your library, and tell why you wish 
to own them. 

5. Tell which one of the four girls in Miss 
Alcott's u Little Women" you would prefer to 
have for a friend, and give your reasons. 

6. Tell which of the boy characters in the 
schoolboy stories you have read you would most 
readily choose for a friend, and give your reasons. 

7. Name some book you would recommend for 
reading on a rainy day, and tell why you would 
recommend it. 



EXPOSITION 43 

8. Tell when and how you made your first ac- 
quaintance with your favorite author. 

9. Tell what foreign country you would most 
like to visit and why. 

10. Tell what books you would buy with five 
dollars, and why you would choose to buy them. 

Exercise 33. Tell what reasons would lead you 
to select any one of the professions or occupations 
named below, and also what drawbacks you would 
take into account in considering it. 



I. 


Farmer. 


6. 


Teacher. 


2. 


Physician. 


7. 


Trained nurse. 


3- 


Country storekeeper. 


8. 


Stenographer. 


4. 


Sailor. 


9- 


Librarian. 


5- 


Soldier. 


10. 


Photographer. 



Exercise 34. Explain the following terms, us- 
ing an illustration whenever possible. A good 
reference book will provide the necessary informa- 
tion. 

1. A white lie. 

2. A brown study. 

3. Red tape. 

4. A blue-stocking. 

5. Brown Bess. 

6. Job's comforters. 

7. Sour grapes. 

8. To show the white feather. 

9. To carry coals to Newcastle. 
10. To be made the scapegoat. 



44 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Written 

Exercise 35. Write a paragraph on one of the 
following topics. . 

1. How I would set to work to earn five dollars. 

2. My favorite way of fishing. 

3. A dog's character sketch of his master. 

4. How the fire drill in our school is conducted. 

5. My most frequent mistakes in spelling and 
grammar. 

6. The pleasantest day of the week. 

7. The best way to celebrate the Fourth of July. 

8. The kind of dog I like best, 

9. A good box of tools. 

10. Some of my home duties. 

Exercise 36. Write five expressions which you 
believe to he slang y and give the meaning of each 
in correct English. 

Exercise 37. Write a short paragraph explain- 
ing any one of the following quotations, and giving 
an example to show its truth. 

1. Some temptations come to the industrious; but all 
temptations attack the idle. 

2. Animals are such agreeable friends — they ask no 
questions, they pass no criticisms. 

3. The crudest lies are sometimes told in silence. 

4. Better must all childhood be 
That knows a garden and a tree. 

5. Good manners are made up of petty sacrifices. 

6. Mistake is the discipline through which we ad- 
vance. 



EXPOSITION 45 

7. No good book, or good thing of any sort, shows its 
best face at first. 

8. The only way to have a friend is to be one. 

9. Every one of us knows better than he practices, 
and recognizes a better law than he obeys. 

10. It is in general more profitable to reckon up our 
defects than to boast of our attainments. 

Oral 

Exercise 38. Give a short explanation of the 
structure and use of any of the following objects. 

b I. A camera. 6. A thermometer. 

2. A compass. 7. A type-writer. 

3. A toboggan. 8. A vacuum cleaner. 

4. An ice-yacht. 9. A lawn-mower. 

5. A cider-press. ■ 10. A violin. 

Exercise 39. Give a short explanation of any 
one of the following expressions. 

1. Trial by jury. 

2. The Electoral College. 

3. A Peace Conference. 

4. Citizenship papers. 

5. Naturalization requirements. 

6. Tariff reduction. 

7. The Monroe Doctrine. 

8. The income tax. 

9. The civil service. 

10. Postal savings banks. 

Exercise 40. Some European hotels and rail- 
roads keep a book in which guests and travelers 



46 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

may enter complaints. Tell what entries you think 
might he made by the following persons, if such a 
book were kept in this school. 

1. The janitor. 

2. The policeman on the school block. 

3. The school librarian. 

4. The teacher who heard the last recitation. 

5. Your best friend. 

Exercise 41. . Tell what person or place is 
meant by each of the following expressions. Ex- 
plain, if you can, how the term came to be used. 

1. The Sick Man of Europe. 

2. The Athens of America. 

3. The Little Corporal. 

4. The Land o' Cakes. 

5. The Swan of Avon. 

6. The Land of the Midnight Sun. 

7. The Father of Waters. 

8. The Virgin Queen. 

9. The Great Pacificator. 

10. The Wizard of the North. 

Stating Practical Problems 

Exercise 42. 1. Assume that you would like 
a change in your programme of studies; the privi- 
lege, for example, of substituting a science for a 
language, or of including an additional subject. 
Request your principal to permit the desired 
change, explaining clearly why you wish to make it. 

2. Inform an official of the post office that a 



EXPOSITION 47 

money order sent by you to a person in another 
state has not been received. 

3. Make a complaint at the office of a depart- 
ment store about the non-delivery of some goods. 

4. Apply to a public official for permission to 
use a baseball ground or a tennis court in a park. 

5. Inquire of a real estate agent for a house 
or apartment suitable for your family. 

6. Apply to the principal of a high school in 
a town to which you have just removed for rank 
in the school corresponding to that which you 
formerly held. 

7. Ask a merchant for an advertisement for 
the school paper. 

8. Report to the proper official the fact that 
you have left a handbag or a pocketbook in a rail- 
way train. 

9. Explain to your teacher or principal that 
you have an opportunity of securing a position for 
some light afternoon work if you can be properly 
recommended, and ask him for the recommenda- 
tion. 

10. As representative of a newly-formed school 
society, ask your principal for permission to hold 
meetings in the school buildings after school hours. 



CHAPTER V 

ARGUMENTATION 

12. Argumentation is a kind of composition 
in which we try to convince others that our view 
of the subject is the right one. For example, in 
the first of the two paragraphs of argumentation 
quoted below, the writer is seeking to convince 
boys and girls that the study of foreign languages 
is a useful part of their education; in the second, 
that poetry, in order to be properly understood, 
should be read aloud. 

I. I say to the boy or the girl who is going to the 
high school that not to take the courses in Greek, Latin, 
French, and German is to throw away a precious oppor- 
tunity. Upon the grounding of those few years in school, 
the young receptive years, what a knowledge of languages 
one can build ! The notion, all too prevalent, that foreign 
languages, especially Greek and Latin, are of no use to 
the boy or girl who is going " right into business " is one 
of the dullest fallacies with which a hard-working 
practical people ever blinded its soul. Playing the piano 
and learning to sing, nay, even going to church, are of no 
use in business. But who will be so foolish as to devote 
his whole life to business? Burritt, the blacksmith boy, 
taught himself languages. The high school boy who is 
going to be a blacksmith can begin to study languages 

48 



ARGUMENTATION 49 

before he picks up the tools of his bread-winning labor. 
If this seems like the vain idealism of a bookish person, 
let me make an appeal to your patriotism. Do you know 
that this land of opportunity and prosperity is not de- 
veloping ^o many fundamentally educated men and women 
as we should expect from our vast system of public 
schools and our many universities? One reason is that 
we have so many " bread-and-butter Americans " who 
allow their boys and girls to stay away from those classes 
in Greek and Latin and French and German which our 
high schools provide at such great cost to the generous 
taxpayer. 

From A Guide to Reading, by John Macy. 

2. I believe that this is true of all poetry. If, when 
we read alone and in silence we are moved to admiration, 
or feel our emotions deeply stirred, how much more 
vivid are our impressions when the words which moved 
us are interpreted by the living voice! Then the ear 
lends powerful witness to what the eye has reported. 
Indeed, if we reflect, is it not to the eye rather than to 
the ear that the poet appeals ? The very way in which 
we print the lines and stanzas of a poem are after all only 
mechanical means designed to convey to the eye what 
would appeal to the ear without any such artifice. The 
original appeal of poetry is to the ear, and the force of it 
is doubled when it is heard. 

From The Oral Interpretation of Browning, by W. 
Boyd Carpenter. 

13. The study of formal argumentation, which 
requires us to be able carefully to plan an argu- 
ment in accordance with a number of difficult rules, 



50 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

is too advanced for pupils in the earlier years of 
the high school course. But even beginners may 
profitably work out some simple exercises in which 
they try to state a case as convincingly as possible. 
A good plan in preparing an argument, whether 
spoken or written, is to draw up a list of reasons 
for upholding your side of the question. These 
may be called proofs. It is well to arrange your 
proofs in the order of their importance, placing 
the most important last. For example, an argu- 
ment on the subject, " All students in public high 
schools should be required to purchase their own 
text-books," might be planned by two pupils, each 
taking a different side of the question, as follows : 

(Affirmative.) 

(i) The ownership of a text-book on any subject 
gives the pupil a stronger and more personal interest in 
that subject. 

(2) The possession of a text-book often results in 
further study of a subject after the pupil has discon- 
tinued the subject in school. 

(3) As high-school texts are expensive, large sums of 
money would be saved to the city, and only a small ex- 
pense incurred by each pupil. 

(Negative.) 

( 1 ) To require each pupil to purchase a set of books 
would be extravagant, as many books which can be made 
to last for several years are used for only one term. 

(2) If the books were not purchased by the city, too 
many changes in text-books would be made, 



ARGUMENTATION 51 

(3) Many pupils who now attend the high school 
cannot afford the money to purchase books. 

Written 

Exercise 43. Choose either side of the ques- 
tion in each of the following subjects, and draw 
up a list of proofs. 

1. First year high school students should be permitted 
to choose their subjects of study. 

2. Ball playing should be permitted in city streets. 

3. City life offers young people greater advantages 
than country life. 

4. The use of slang is sometimes justifiable. 

5. Interclass athletic contests are more beneficial than 
interscholastic contests. 

6. The school day should consist of a single session. 

7. The present examination system in our school is 
satisfactory. 

8. Promotions in the high school should be made 
annually. 

9. English spelling should be reformed. 

10. First year high school students should be per- 
mitted to play on school teams. 

In most speeches, whether long or short, the 
aim of the speaker is not so much to change 
people's beliefs as to influence their feelings. The 
form of argument which aims to influence people's 
feelings is called persuasion. Antony's speech, 
in Julius Casar, Act III, Scene 2, is a familiar 
example of persuasion, 



52 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Oral 
Exercise 44. i. Make a short speech nom- 
inating a candidate for a school office } such as class 
president f or football manager. Say what you 
can to show his fitness for the office. 

2. Introduce a speaker who is about to address 
your club or society on the subject of recent prog- 
ress in some special scientific field, such as aviation. 
Convince your audience that the subject is one of 
unusual interest. 

3. Move that a vote of thanks be given to the 
speaker referred to above. Express your appre- 
ciation of the value of his address. 

4. Make a short speech advocating some 
needed improvement in the management of the 
affairs of your town or your county. 

5. Propose the formation of a new society or 
athletic team in your school, showing the advan- 
tages of having such an organization in the 
school. 

14. Many common mistakes in judgment as 
well as in action occur merely because we do not 
take the trouble to think about the reasons that 
are given for statements which we accept as true. 
A very little thought will often help us to avoid 
these common errors. 

Oral 
Exercise 45. Point out the error in reasoning 
in each of the following statements. 



ARGUMENTATION 53 

1. The expression I have used cannot be ungram- 
matical, for I have often heard it. 

2. The statement I have quoted must be true, for 
I saw it in the newspaper. 

3. My chum says that Latin grammar is very hard 
to learn, therefore I will not choose Latin for my next 
elective subject. 

4. Walter Scott did not take any pains to study his 
Greek lessons when he was a schoolboy, therefore I need 
not mind neglecting my studies. 

5. I have been told by the librarian that George 
Eliot's Middlemarch is much too difficult a book for young 
people of my age; therefore I am sure that I shall find 
the same author's Silas Marner very dry. 

6. I know our school will lose the next football game, 
for I have met the captain of the other team, and he says 
that he will surely win. 

7. I think Harvey Jones would make a first-rate 
president of the senior class, because he was the best 
pitcher on our nine last season. 

8. I am sure I shall not like the girl who has just 
come into our class, for I met a girl from her town last 
summer, and she was very cross and disagreeable. 

9. The last time I took an examination without any 
preparation I received a high mark, therefore I shall not 
make any preparation this time. 

10. The librarian says that this book is very interest- 
ing, but two girls have told me that it is very dull ; there- 
fore it must be dull, because two heads are better than 
one. 



CHAPTER VI 
PUNCTUATION 

15. Punctuation marks (Latin, piinctum, a 
point) are marks or points by means of which 
written or printed matter is divided into groups 
of words. The ancients did not punctuate their 
manuscripts, and our present system of punctua- 
tion has grown up by degrees. Punctuation helps 
us to understand the relations of words. A change 
in punctuation, or the omission of certain marks 
of punctuation will often change the meaning of 
a passage completely. To take a well-known ex- 
ample: if we write " Charles the First walked and 
talked an hour after his head was cut off," we 
assert something that most people would find it 
difficult to believe; whereas if we use one or two 
punctuation marks and write " Charles the First 
walked and talked. An hour after, his head was 
cut off," we have an unquestioned statement of fact. 

There is often room for a difference of opinion 
in regard to punctuation. In many cases there is 
no fixed rule which can be followed. 

16. The period (.) is used at the end of sen- 
tences expressing statements or commands, and 
after abbreviations. 

54 



PUNCTUATION 55 

Do not forget to bring me another book by R. L. 
Stevenson. He is my favorite author. 

17. Some of the chief uses of the comma (,) 
are: 

(1) To separate words, phrases, or clauses used 
in a series, and not joined by conjunctions. 

A tall, strong, heavy, nut-brown man. 

We were without assistance, without tools, without 
materials. 

If the power of steam were to be annihilated, if we 
were to miss it on the water and in the mills, it would 
seem as if we were going back to rude ages. 

Note. — If the last two in the series are joined 
by a conjunction, the comma should nevertheless 
be used. 

The movement spread to Germany, France, Italy, 
Australia, and New Zealand. 

(2) To set off from the rest of the sentence the 
word or words naming the person addressed. 

There, little girl, don't cry! 
My gentle boy, remember this 
Is nothing but a dream. 

(3) To set off from the rest of the sentence a 
noun, or a noun with its modifiers, in apposition 
(100). 

Brazil, the largest country in South America, was 
formerly a monarchy. 

The game was won by Brown, the captain of the team. 



56 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

(4) To separate a direct quotation (20) or its 
parts from the rest of the sentence. 

Patrick Henry said, " If this be treason, make the most 
of it." 

" Give me a fulcrum and a lever," said Archimedes, 
" and I will move the world." 

(5) To set off from the rest of the sentence an 
adjectival phrase or clause which is non-essential 
(168). 

Lord Tennyson, who died in 1892, had been poet- 
laureate of England since 1850. 

The child, hugging her doll more closely than ever, 
continued bravely on her journey. 

(6) To set off from the rest of the sentence par- 
enthetical expressions, nouns used with participles 
in the absolute construction (98) , and phrases and 
clauses used out of their grammatical order. 

I knew, of course, that I could not hope to succeed 
without hard labor. 

Summer fading, winter comes. 

The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, 
Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun. 
If you will not hear Reason, she will surely rap your 
knuckles. 

(7) To set off from each other co-ordinate mem- 
bers of a compound sentence (223), when they 
are short and connected by a conjunction. 



PUNCTUATION 57 

It had rained heavily in the night, and all the wood 
was as wet as it could be. 

Note. — When the co-ordinate members are very 
short indeed, the comma is usually omitted. 

The Piper advanced and the children followed. 

Written 
Exercise 46. Write original sentences illus- 
trating each of the foregoing rules for the use of 
the comma. 

Oral 
Exercise 47. Tell why each comma is used in 
the following sentences. 

i. Life is a short day, but it is a working day. 

2. You must wake and call me early, mother dear. 

3. " A storm is brewing," said the guide, " but we 
may reach shelter before it breaks." 

4. Pocahontas, who rescued John Smith, became the 
wife of a white man. 

5. The cold, dark, clammy wet wrapped him up like 
a moist great-coat. 

6. When Chatham was asked where he had learned 
his English history, he answered, " In the plays of 
Shakespeare." 

7. All avenues of escape being cut off, the fugitive 
surrendered. 

8. Wynken, Blynken, and Nod one night 
Sailed off in a wooden shoe. 

9. Marley was dead, to begin with. 

10. Washington Irving, the author of " The Sketch 
Book," was born in New York. 



58 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

18. The chief uses of the semicolon ( ; ) are : 

(1) To separate the co-ordinate members of a 
compound sentence, when no connective is used 
between them. 

Blessed is he who has found his work; let him ask no 
other blessedness. 

Note. — Even when the co-ordinate members of 
a compound sentence are joined by a conjunction, 
a semicolon may sometimes be placed between 
them if a comma is used in any one of them. 

This use of the semicolon is not frequent in present- 
day writing, but is sometimes desirable for clearness, as 
in the following example: 

Kim had been trained by Lurgan Sahib; and E. 23, 
by virtue of his business, was no bad actor. 

Note. — If a comma were placed after Sahib, we should 
not understand so readily that E. 23 was the subject of the 
verb was, and not in the same construction as Lurgan 
Sahib. 

(2) To separate clauses or phrases used in a 
series, when they are very long, or when they 
contain several commas. 

Woe unto them that call evil good and good evil ; that 
put darkness for light, and light for darkness; that put 

bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter. 

» 

He sees them in country lanes and rustic villages; on 
lonely moorlands, where narrow, brown foot-tracks 
thread the expanse of green waste, and occasionally a 
hawk hangs overhead; along the sea-cliffs and the wet, 



PUNCTUATION 59 

ribbed sands ; in places far inland, where the sea is known 
only as a strange tradition. 

19. The colon ( : ) is placed before a quota- 
tion which is introduced in an emphatic or a 
formal manner, and before a list or an explana- 
tion. It may also be used to separate two inde- 
pendent statements which are brought together in 
one sentence. 

The famous Friar Bacon was believed to have con- 
structed a brazen head, which uttered the following 
words: " Time is; Time was; Time has been." 

The novelists whose works will be considered during 
the course are: Scott, Miss Austen, Dickens, Thackeray, 
Charlotte Bronte, and Anthony Trollope. 

And spite of pride, in erring reason's spite, 
One truth is clear : Whatever is, is right. 

But this is not all that we must learn : we must beware 
everywhere of the letter that kills, seek everywhere for 
the spirit that makes glad. 

Oral 
Exercise 48. Tell why each semicolon or colon 
is used in the following sentences. 

i. All true work is sacred; in all true work, were it 
but true hand-labor, there is something of divineness. 

2. Complain not : the very Spartans did not complain. 

3. And lastly, courage, so far as it is a sign of race, 
is peculiarly the mark of a gentleman or a lady; but it 
becomes vulgar if rude or insensitive. 

4. Many streams make many rivulets; many rivulets 
make large rivers. 



60 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

5. We were told to write a composition on one of 
the following characters: Tom Brown, Locksley, Miles 
Standish, Brutus, Evangeline, Richard Cceur-de-Lion. 

6. I will tell thee, my friend, what Poor Richard 
says: Employ thy time well, if thou meanest to gain 
leisure; and, since thou art not sure of a minute, throw 
not away an hour. 

7. When charged with the offense, he said that they 
might do their worst ; that he was quite content to endure 
whatever punishment they chose to inflict; that he had 
done what he considered his duty, and that under like 
circumstances he would do the same. 

8. The neighbors also came out to see him run; and 
as he ran, some mocked, others threatened, and some cried 
out after him to return. 

9. The rule of conduct that Carlyle taught most 
thoroughly was this: Work, and don't whine. 

10. Here were all manner of Northern folk, tending 
tethered ponies and kneeling camels; loading and unload- 
ing bales and bundles; drawing water for the evening 
meal at the creaking well windlasses; piling grass before 
the shrieking, wild-eyed stallions; cuffing the surly cara- 
van dogs ; paying off camel-drivers ; taking on new grooms ; 
swearing, shouting, arguing, and chaffering in the packed 
square. 

20. Quotation marks (" ") are used to enclose 
direct quotations. By direct quotations we mean 
the actual words used by a speaker. If the words 
are changed so that only the substance of what is 
said is given, we have an indirect quotation (29). 
Quotation marks should not be used with indirect 



PUNCTUATION 61 

quotations. If a quotation is interrupted and then 
continued, both parts should be enclosed within 
quotation marks. 

Direct Quotation — The Fairy Blackstick said to the 
little Prince, " My child, the best thing that 
I can wish you is a little misfortune." 

Indirect Quotation — The Fairy Blackstick said to the 
little Prince that the best thing she could 
wish him was a little misfortune. 

Interrupted ( " I am sorry indeed," replied the King, 

Quotation ( " that my vessel is already chosen." 

A quotation within a quotation is placed be- 
tween single marks. 

" Remember the proverb, ' Melodious is the closed 
mouth,' " said the Colonel. 

Titles of books, poems, plays, etc., are usually 
enclosed within quotation marks. When quotation 
marks are not used the titles may be printed in 
italics, or, if written, underlined. 

The opera " Lucia di Lammermoor " is based on 
Scott's novel " The Bride of Lammermoor." 

21. The apostrophe ( [ ) is used to show that 
one or more letters have been left out, and to 
mark the genitive case (101). In many geni- 
tives the apostrophe before the s marks a con- 
traction of the Old English suffix es, which was 
used to show the genitive case. 

'Twasn't I that stole the robin's nest. 



62 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

22. The hyphen ( - ) is used between parts of 
a compound word, and between parts of a word 
which have been written or printed on different 
lines. The division of a word should always be 
made at the end of a syllable. Words which were 
formerly considered compound are now often 
printed as two distinct words, as high school, in- 
stead of high-school. 

He that goes a-borrowing goes a-sorrowing. 

It gives us courage to struggle on under all our difficul- 
ties when we notice with what patient endurance the lower 
animals meet the dangers and anxieties of their lives. 

Note. — The, suffix ed should always be written on 
the same line as the body of the word of which it 
forms a part. 

23. The dash ( — ) is used to show that the 
train of thought has been interrupted. A paren- 
thesis is sometimes the equivalent' of the dash. 
Neither the dash nor the parenthesis need be used 
frequently. 

The casual sight of an old play bill, which I picked 
up the other day — I know not by what chance it was 
preserved so long — tempts me to call to mind a few of 
the players who make the principal figure in it. 

24. The parenthesis ( ( ) ) is used to enclose 
words which do not belong to the main thought of 
the sentence, but which are introduced for the sake 
of explanation. 

L.'s governor (so we called the patron who presented 
us to the foundation) lived in a manner under his 
paternal roof. 



PUNCTUATION 63 

25. The interrogation point or question mark 
(?) is used at the end of a direct question. In 

a direct question, as in a direct quotation, we 
have the actual words used by the speaker. The 
interrogation point is not used after an indirect 
question. 

Direct Question — " And wherefore do the poor com- 
plain?" 
The rich man asked of me. 
Indirect Question — I asked her why she loitered there. 

26. The exclamation point (!) is used to 
show the expression of some strong feeling, such 
as sorrow, joy, fear, etc. 

O, well-a-day! that ever I was born! 
Hurrah! for merry England! 
I fear thee, ancient Mariner! 

Written 

Exercise 49. Punctuate the following sen- 
tences, and tell why each punctuation mark should 
he used. 

i. Louis XIV said to his courtiers Gentlemen I al- 
most had to wait 

2. Said he 111 go my chief Im ready 

3. I said the little gentleman drawing his cloak 
majestically around him am the King of the Golden 
River 

4. The moon sees many brooks the brook sees but 
one moon 

5. This made the Emperors flesh creep because he 



64 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

thought they were right but he said to himself I must 
keep it up through the procession anyhow 

6. A complainant was cross examining a defendants 
witness What color was the horse he asked Black said 
the witness Well answered the complainant Im not al- 
lowed to contradict you and I wouldnt for the world 
but I say he wasnt 

7. The conductor shouted to the porter Here wait 
a minute wheres that dog going to Pointing to the piece 
of string that dangled from the dogs collar the porter 
answered I dont know and he doesnt and hes eaten his 
tag 

8. Published in Everymans Library where by the 
way you can often find books that it is impossible to get 
elsewhere are Anne Mannings two quaint and charming 
narratives 

9. The best claim that a college education can pos- 
sibly make on your respect the best thing it can aspire to 
accomplish is this that it should help you to know a good 
man when you see him 

10. The father of David Livingstone the great ex- 
plorer was just filling his pipe says a writer in Collier's 
Weekly when he learned that tobacco had been heavily 
taxed If we have to give it up said he tis just as well 
to begin now So saying he knocked the weed out of his 
pipe and never smoked again. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE USE OF CAPITAL 
LETTERS 

27. Capital letters are used to begin 

(1) Sentences. 

They say. What say they? Let them say. 

(2) Direct quotations (20). 

Pinckney said, " Millions for defense, but not one cent 
for tribute." 

Note. — When a quotation is interrupted, the 
second part does not begin with a capital, unless 
a new sentence follows the interruption. 

" All work and no play," funs the proverb, " makes 
Jack a dull boy." 

" How fortunate we are! " said the Frogs. " Now we 
shall have a fine king! " 

(3) Every line of poetry. 

So, Willy, let me and you be wipers 

Of scores out with all men, especially pipers. 

(4) All important words in titles. 

" The Pied Piper of Hamelin " was written by Robert 
Browning. 

(5) Propernames (86 ) and proper adjectives (181). 

The first of the Norman kings of England was William 
the Conqueror. 

65 



66 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Note. — Titles of office and honor are capitalized 
when used as proper names, not otherwise. 

Elizabeth was called the Virgin Queen. 

No queen was ever more beloved than Victoria. 

(6) The name of the Deity, or the pronoun that 
stands for the Deity. 

Bless the Lord, O my soul, and all that is within me 
bless His holy name. 

(7) The names of the days of the week, the 
months, holidays, festivals, localities, religious 
sects, political parties, important historical events, 
titles of books, newspapers, poems. 

The last Monday in December was Christmas Day. 

The great West still offers numerous opportunities to 
progressive settlers. 

This is the church in which the Methodists worship. 

The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln. 

The French Revolution changed the history of the 
world. 

Scott wrote a story called " The Betrothed." 

" The Herald " is one of the oldest newspapers in the 
country. 

Tennyson wrote " The Brook." 

(8) Common nouns that are used in personifica- 
tion (66). 

For Winter came; the wind was his whip. 

Note. — The pronoun I and the interjection O are 
always capitalized. 



THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 67 

Written 

Exercise 50. Rewrite the following stories, 
using punctuation marks and capitals wherever 
they are needed. Invent a suitable title for each 
story. 

1. A russian prince famous for his great wealth was 
dining at a parisian restaurant he ordered two peaches 
for his dessert when the bill came he noticed the charge 
two peaches fifteen francs he paid the bill saying however 
as he did so peaches are scarce in paris this year are they 
not no replied the waiter but russian princes are 

2. George wither the seventeenth century poet was 
sentenced to death for a political offense sir John denham 
the author of the poem coopers hill begged the king to 
spare his life while wither lives said sir John I shall not 
be the worst poet in england 

3. A one armed french soldier was sitting in a tavern 
telling the listeners of his exploits in war I have lost my 
left arm in the service of my country he proudly declared 
and I would gladly sacrifice the other if it were needed 
that is a fine boast said an officer who had heard the as- 
sertion but you do not expect us to believe it do you 
stung by the sneer the soldier promptly drew his sword 
and cut off his right arm at least so the story says but 
there seems to be something wrong about it 

4. Tennyson would often read his poems aloud to 
his friends on one occasion a young lady who had just 
heard him read tithonus cried out oh how awfully pretty 
my dear child dont use that dreadful word said the poet 
oh im awfully sorry she exclaimed blushing deeply 

5. When the people hear my rivals speech said demos- 



68 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

thenes the greek orator they exclaim what a splendid 
speech when they hear mine they say lets go and fight 
philip 

6. The famous author thomas carlyle had lent the 
manuscript of his book on the french revolution to his 
friend j s mill whose servant carelessly destroyed it when 
carlyle heard of the misfortune he said to his wife well 
mill poor fellow is very miserable we must try to keep 
from him how serious the loss is to us 

7. Charles lamb the author of the essays of elia was a 
clerk in the east india office he was in the habit of arriv- 
ing very late when rebuked for his tardiness he replied 
its true that I come late but see how early I go 

8. According to greek legend the sphinx was a 
monster that inhabited a pass near thebes and put the 
following riddle to every passer by what animal is it that 
in the morning walks on four legs at noon on two legs 
and in the evening on three legs the riddle was finally 
solved by oedipus 

9. I have a very difficult task for you to perform said 
a french king to his minister of state sire responded the 
minister if it is only difficult it is already done if it is 
impossible it shall be done 

10. Philip of macedon when intoxicated was rude to 
a woman who came to him for judgment I shall appeal she 
said to whom queried philip to philip sober was the reply 
hence the saying appeal from philip drunk to philip sober 



CHAPTER VIII 

DIRECT AND INDIRECT 
QUOTATION 

28. A speech is said to be in direct quotation 
when the words used by the speaker are given 
without any change. It is said to be in indirect 
quotation when, although the most important 
words are given exactly as they were spoken, the 
form of the sentences is changed in some 
respects. 

29. The chief points to be noted in changing 
from the direct to the indirect form of speech 
are: (i) the use of pronouns and (2) the uses of 
tenses. 

The pronouns of the first person and second 
person (159) in the direct quotation are changed 
to pronouns of the third person (159) in in- 
direct quotation. 

When the verb of saying, thinking, asking, etc., 
is in the past tense (131), may, can, shall, do, 
will, in the quoted speech become might, did, 
could, should, would; and present and present per- 
fect tenses are changed to past and past perfect 
tenses : as, 



70 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Direct — George II said, " I don't like painting and 

poetry." 
Indirect — George II said that he didn't like painting 

and poetry. 
Direct — He said, " I have never seen the righteous man 

forsaken." 
Indirect — He said that he had never seen the righteous 

man forsaken. 

30. In changing interrogative sentences (74) 
from direct to indirect quotation, it is some- 
times necessary to supply if or whether as an 
introductory word, instead of that. In sentences 
expressing a command, some slight change in the 
wording is often required. 

Direct — "Can I trust you to keep a secret?" he sud- 
denly inquired. 

Indirect — He suddenly inquired if he could trust me to 
keep a secret. 

Direct — I would say to a young person: "Try to 
frequent the company of your betters." 

Indirect — I would say to a young person that he ought 
to try to frequent the company of his 
betters. 

Oral or Written 
Exercise 51. Change the following sentences 
from the direct to the indirect form. 

1. Aristotle said, " I love Plato, but I love truth 
more." 

2. The poet Fletcher of Saltoun said, " Let me make 
the ballads and I care not who makes the laws." 



DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUOTATION 71 

3. " I have only just begun to fight," was Paul 
Jones's reply when told to surrender. 

4. " Stop crying, you are safe now," said the little 
boy's nurse to her frightened charge. 

5. "I have been an unconscionable time a-dying," 
said Charles II on his death-bed. 

6. Nelson said, " England expects every man to do 
his duty." 

7. " I hope that the time will come when every 
English peasant may be able to read Bacon," said an 
English nobleman. " I shall be satisfied if every English 
peasant is able to eat bacon," responded a statesman. 

8. " Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes," 
exclaimed the general. 

9. " I will fight it out on this line, if it takes me all 
summer," declared General Grant, when he was besieg- 
ing Vicksburg. 

10. " Brothers, be of good cheer; this night we shall 
all sup with Pluto," was Leonidas's speech to his men 
before the battle of Thermopylae. 

11. " See thou fail not to wear thy muddy cloak, in 
token of penitence, till our pleasure be further known," 
said Queen Elizabeth to Raleigh. 

12. " The chasm will never close until the best wealth 
of Rome is thrown therein," was the decree of the 
Roman soothsayers when a great gulf opened in the city. 

13. Lord Brougham said, " Let the soldier be abroad, 
if he will. He can do nothing in this age, for the 
schoolmaster is abroad." 

14. Robert Bruce, after noticing a spider fail six 
times in attaching its thread, said, " Now shall this spider 
teach me what I am to do, for I also have failed six 
times." 



72 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

15. "I cannot rest comfortably at night," complained 
a luxury loving Greek. " There is a doubled rose-leaf in 
my bed." 

16. When the oracle pronounced Socrates to be the 
wisest man in Greece, he modestly answered, " 'Tis be- 
cause I alone of all the Greeks know that I know noth- 

in&" 

17. " Pluck at a gown of gold," says the proverb, 
" and you may get a sleeve of it." 

18. " Remember," said a famous man to a young 
friend, " that before you are five-and-twenty you must 
establish a character that will serve you all your life." 

19. " Mr. Speaker," said Sir Boyle Roche, the Irish 
statesman, " it is impossible for me to have been in two 
places at once, unless I were a bird." 

20. When Disraeli's first speech in Parliament was 
received with laughter, he exclaimed, " I will sit down 
now, but the time will come when you will hear me." 

21. " Don't hurt the kittens," called out Harry's 
mother to her five-year-old son, as he approached proudly 
to show his new possessions to the visitors. " I'm not 
hurting them, mother," he answered. " I'm carrying them 
very carefully by the stems." 

22. " Do you call that cheap? " rudely inquired a cus- 
tomer of a shopkeeper who had told him how much a 
certain article cost. " I call it neither cheap nor dear," 
answered the shopkeeper, " but just the price of the 
article." 

23. " Does it never occur to you," asked the watch 
of the canary bird in the fable, " that life is too short to 
be chirped away idly?" "I am no philosopher," re- 
sponded Dick, " but just a plain canary bird." 

24. " Do you confess, then, without a blush," con- 



DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUOTATION 73 

tinued the watch, " that you have no other aim in exist- 
ence than to kill time? " " If I were not always killing 
time, time would speedily kill me," said the canary. 

25. A French writer once said, " There are no writers 
of genius except myself and a few friends — and I am 
not certain about my friends." 

Written 

Exercise 52. Rewrite the following selections, 
changing indirect quotations to direct. 

1. A gentleman who wished to take singing-lessons 
asked a famous teacher what his terms were. The 
instructor replied that he charged ten dollars for the first 
lesson, and five dollars each for the others. The 
prospective pupil thereupon remarked that he thought it 
would be better to begin with the second lesson. 

2. King John, who was jealous of the Abbot of 
Canterbury, announced to him that he should be put to 
death unless he answered three questions. The first 
question put was, how much the King was worth; the 
second, how long it would take to ride round the world ; 
the third, what the King was thinking of. The King 
gave the Abbot three weeks' grace for his answers. 

3. A lady who knew very little of housekeeping com- 
plained after she had tried to make a cup of coffee that 
she had boiled the beans for a whole hour and they were 
no softer than when she first put them into the pot. 

4. King Henry VIII assured his jester that if any 
nobleman of the court took his life, he would have him 
beheaded, a quarter of an hour afterwards. The jester 
inquired whether the King could not have the beheading 
done a quarter of an hour before. 



74 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

5. A nobleman protested against a sculptor's charges, 
saying that he demanded fifty pieces of gold for a bust 
that had cost only ten days' labor. The sculptor re- 
sponded that the patron forgot the thirty years of toil 
that had gone to the learning how to make the bust in 
ten days. 

31. When the direct quotation states some- 
thing that is true at all times, the present tense 
is kept when the quotation is changed to the in- 
direct form, even though the verb of saying, think- 
ing, etc., is in the past: as, 

Galileo asserted boldly, " The earth moves round the 
sun." 

Galileo asserted boldly that the earth moves round 
the sun. 



CHAPTER IX 
LETTER- WRITING 

32. Some Hints on Letter- writing 

1. Use unruled paper. White is much the best. 

2. Be sure that the envelope matches the paper. 

3. Write neatly and legibly. 

4. Do not crowd the words at the end of a line. 

5. Avoid postscripts. 

6. Do not allow the signature, or the signature 
and the complimentary close, to be the only words 
on a page. 

7. Be sure that the conclusion of your letter 
is grammatical and appropriate. 

8. Be sure that you have spelled correctly the 
name of the person to whom you are writing. 

33. " As keys do open chests, So letters open 
brests," wrote, in the quaint spelling of his day, 
a famous letter-writer of the seventeenth century, 
James Howell by name. Letters certainly tell a 
great deal about their writers. We should there- 
fore try to have them tell only the best about us, 
and to that end we should learn thoroughly the 
most important rules of letter- writing. 

34. Letters may be divided into two classes, 
social letters and business letters. Social letters 

75 



76 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

are those written to persons whom we know more 
or less intimately, and may be classified again as 
either letters of friendship or formal letters, ac- 
cording to the kind of message conveyed in them. 

35. Letters of friendship are, as the name 
tells us, written to persons whom we know well. 
Formal letters are written to persons with whom 
we have only a slight acquaintance, and deal with 
other than business matters. Business letters are 
written to persons or to groups of persons with 
whom we wish to arrange some of the affairs of 
business life. The first letter given below, written 
by the novelist Charlotte Bronte to a friend with 
whom she had been staying, is a good example of 
a letter of friendship; the second, written by Mrs. 
Barrett Browning to the Secretary of the Robert 
Browning Settlement upon the death of her hus- 
band, the son of the great poet, is a formal letter; 
the third is a business letter. 

Haworth, July 1st, 185 1. 
My Dear Mrs. Smith, 

Once more I am at home, where, I 
am thankful to say, I found my father very well. The 
journey to Manchester was a little hot and dusty, but 
otherwise pleasant enough. The two stout gentlemen, 
who filled a portion of the carriage when I got in, quitted 
it at Rugby, and two other ladies and myself had it to our- 
selves the rest of the way. The visit to Mrs. Gaskell 
formed a cheering break in the journey. Haworth Par- 
sonage is rather a contrast, yet even Haworth Parsonage 



LETTER-WRITING 77 

dees not look gloomy in this bright summer-weather ; it is 
somewhat still, but with the windows open I can hear a 
bird or two singing on certain thorn-trees in the garden. 
My father and the servants think me looking better than 
when I left home, and I certainly feel better myself for the 
change. You are too much like your son to render it 
advisable I should say much about your kindness during 
my visit. However, one cannot help (like Captain Cuttle) 
making a note of these matters. Papa says I am to thank 
you in his name, and offer you his respects, which I do 
accordingly. 

With truest regards to all your circle, believe me 
Very sincerely yours, 

C. Bronte. 



28, Via Maggio, Florence, 
July 29th, 1912. 
Dear Sir, 

I beg you will convey to the Council of the Robert 
Browning Settlement my most sincere and grateful thanks 
for their kind sympathy to me in the great loss of my 
dear husband, and their late President. 

It is a very real consolation to know how greatly 
touched and delighted he was at the world-wide recog- 
nition of his great father's life-work, and nowhere more 
so than at the Browning Settlement. 

I shall hope to have an opportunity sometimes of re- 
newing my personal knowledge of all you are doing, and 
beg you will believe my interest will always be as keen 
as my husband's. 

Believe me very sincerely yours, 

Fanny Barrett Browning. 



78 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

2307 Wabash Avenue, 
Chicago, Illinois, 
May 1, 1914. 
Mrs. L. Johnson, 
100 Beacon Street, 
Brookline, Mass. 
Dear Madam: 

We have received notice from the Adams 
Express Company that they were unable to locate you 
and deliver a parcel which we forwarded at the request 
of Mrs. James Woolley. 

Will you kindly communicate with the express com- 
pany, giving them such further details of your address as 
may be necessary to enable them to deliver the parcel? 

Very truly yours, 
Smith-Gardner Drug Stores, 
Per L. E. Hall. 
(Mail Order Department.) 

36. It is, of course, not necessary to assume 
that any one way of arranging the parts of a 
letter is the only correct way. A glance through 
any collection of letters will show us many inter- 
esting examples of originality in correspondence. 
For instance, when the widow of the great actor 
David Garrick wished to criticise Edmund 
Kean's acting, and the criticism was acknowl- 
edged, the letters exchanged were worded as fol- 
lows: Dear Sir — You cannot act Abel Drugger. 
Yours, M. Garrick. Madam — I know it. Yours, 
E. Kean. Still, though we may all allow our- 
selves some liberty of choice in matters of ar- 



LETTER-WRITING 79 

rangement (not so much, perhaps, as was taken 
by the actor and his critic), it is best for young 
people to follow definitely some plan that has 
wide acceptance, and for that reason, letter-forms 
should be carefully studied. 

37. There are four parts to all letters of friend- 
ship : the heading, the salutation, the body of the 
letter, and the conclusion. In business letters and 
formal letters another part is required : the direc- 
tion, which precedes the salutation, and includes 
the name of the person to whom the letter is 
written, and his full address. 

Letters of Friendship 

38. In a letter of friendship the heading con- 
sists of the address of the writer and the date on 
which the letter was written. If the address is 
short, the heading need occupy only two lines, the 
second line a little to the right of the first; but if 
the street and number are given as well as the city 
and state, three lines are generally required. The 
lines of the heading are usually separated by 
commas, and a period is placed at the end of the 
last line. Some persons, however, prefer to use 
the " open line," as it is called, omitting the 
comma between the lines and the period at the end. 

39. The salutation in a letter of friendship 
varies according to the intimacy between the writer 
and the person to whom the letter is written. Here 
are some examples of different forms : Dear Mr. 



80 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Smith; My dear Mr. Smith; Dear Ethel; My 
dear Ethel; Dear Cousin John (though never 
" Dear friend John ") ; Dearest Mother. When 
the word " My " is used, the salutation becomes 
a little more formal than when it is omitted. In 
England, however, just the opposite is the case, 
and " My " is the sign of greater intimacy. A 
comma is the punctuation mark usually placed 
after the salutation in a letter of friendship. 

40. The conclusion of a letter of friendship, 
which consists of the complimentary close and the 
signature, should, like the salutation, show the de- 
gree of intimacy between the one who writes and 
the one who is written to. Examples of different 
forms of the complimentary close suitable for 
different kinds of letters of friendship are: Yours 
sincerely; Yours faithfully; Cordially yours; Affec- 
tionately yours; Your affectionate friend; Your 
loving son. The complimentary close is always 
followed by a comma. 

It is not necessary to connect the body of the 
letter with the conclusion by any such expression 
as, " Trusting to hear from you soon, I remain " 
or " Hoping that you are spending a pleasant 
summer, I am," or even by " I am " or " I re- 
main " alone. Unless the connecting phrase adds 
something to the message given in the letter, it is 
more in keeping with modern custom to omit it, 
so that the conclusion follows directly upon the 
body of the letter. 



LETTER- WRITING 



81 



41. The signature of a letter of friendship 
should in most cases consist of the writer's full 
name. In writing to near relations or to very in- 
timate friends it is of course not necessary to sign 
one's name in full; but if the letter is important the 
use of the complete signature is a wise precaution 
which insures the return of the letter in case of 
its straying to the Dead Letter Office. 

42. The following plan shows the usual ar- 
rangement of the parts of a letter of friendship. 



Salutation 



Body of 
letter 



266 Taylor Street, 

Dubuque, Iowa, 

May 7, 1 914. 



My dear Marion, 



Your affectionate friend, 
Helen Mayhew. 



Heading * 



Complimen- 
tary close 



Signature 



♦If the person to whom the letter is written lives in the 
same city as the writer, the name of the state may be omitted, 
and the name of the city placed on the same line as the date, 



82 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Written 

Exercise 53. Make a careful copy of the fol- 
lowing letter, arranging and punctuating the dif- 
ferent parts correctly, also dividing the body of 
the letter into paragraphs. 

22 10 Brattle Street Cambridge May 21 19 13 Dear 
Mrs Valentine I thank you very much for so kindly send- 
ing me the little book of English Folk Songs, which I 
shall value highly. How delightful the old melodies are ! 
I am never tired of listening to them. Can you tell me 
of any book in which I could find the old French songs? 
I suppose some of these charming tunes have been col- 
lected. Many of the Breton ballads are really beautiful. 
I have not been away from Cambridge this year, and have 
not gathered a single spray of arbutus. Hoping that you 
and yours are well I am yours sincerely Crofton Bell 

Exercise 54. Arrange and punctuate the fol- 
lowing headings. 

1. Sound Beach Connecticut March 1 1903 

2. 12 West 43 Street New York May 10 19 12 

3. 1406 Wabash Avenue Chicago 111 Nov 6 19 10 

4. 200 North St Wilkesbarre Pa Dec 7 1913 

5. Heath Massachusetts Aug 17 19 13 

6. 1626 Linden Ave Brooklyn N Y Oct 9 19 12 

7. Fairview Heights Denver Colorado June 20 1913 

8. 15 Washington St Los Angeles Cal Jan 12 1910 

9. 257 Lincoln Avenue Syracuse N Y November 
10 1913 

10. 14 N Main St Williamstown W Va July 7 19 10 



LETTER-WRITING 83 

Formal Letters 

43. The heading of a formal letter does not 
differ from that used in a letter of friendship. 

44. In many formal letters the heading is fol- 
lowed by the direction. This includes the name of 
the person written to, and his full address, and 
occupies two or three lines, according to the num- 
ber of items included in the address. The lines of 
the direction, like those of the heading, are sep- 
arated by commas, unless the " open line " ar- 
rangement previously mentioned is preferred. 
Sometimes the direction, instead of preceding the 
salutation, is placed at the end of the letter, to 
the left of the paper. 

45. The salutation in a formal letter in which 
the direction is omitted should always begin with 

the expression " My dear ." If the direction 

is used, " Dear Sir " or " Dear Madam " may be 
substituted for " My dear Mr. Smith " or " My 
dear Miss Smith," although if the writer of the 
letter has any acquaintance with the person to 
whom he is writing, it is quite correct to use the 
salutation " My dear Mr. Smith " even though 
the letter may contain a formal direction. Under 
no circumstances should the expression " Dear 
Miss " be used without the surname. u Dear 
Madam " is used for the formal address of all 
ladies, married or unmarried. 



84 



ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



46. In the conclusion of a formal letter, the 
complimentary close most often used is " Yours 
truly, or " Yours very truly." Formal letters 
from one official to another, or to an official from 
a person in private life, usually have the compli- 
mentary close " Yours respectfully." This form 
is, however, not often used outside of official 
life. 

47. The following plan shows one way in 
which the parts of a formal letter may be ar- 
ranged. 





19 Washington Terrace, 

Topeka, Kansas, 

May 12, 1914. 


Direction -j 


Mr. James D. Crosbie, 

137 Vernon Street, 

Chicago, Illinois. 


Salutation 

r 


M> dear Mr. Crosbie: 


Body of J 
letter ] 




I 


Very truly yours, 




Edward Wright. 



Heading 



Complimen- 
tary close 



Signature ; § 



LETTER-WRITING 



85 



48. Another way of arranging the parts of the 
formal letter to Mr. Crosbie is given below. 



Salutation 



Body of 
letter 



Direction 



19 Washington Terrace, 

Topeka, Kansas, 

May 12, 1914. 



My dear Sir: 



Very truly yours, 

Edward Wright. 



Mr. James D. Crosbie, 
137 Vernon Street, 
Chicago, Illinois. 



Heading 



o 

Complimen- ) t» 
tary close ( £L 

Signature J 2 



Written 
Exercise 55. Copy the following letter y ar- 
ranging and punctuating the different parts cor- 
rectly. 

Office of the New York Times New York Sept 6 1903 
My dear Sir Your article came to hand several days ago 
and I am pleased to say that I have found it available It 
will be used as a regular review of the new edition of 
Thomson's poems Very truly yours Francis W. Halsey 



86 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Editor of the New York Times Saturday Review Mr. 
E. Irving 14 Buckingham Road Yonkers New York 

Exercise 56. Arrange and punctuate the fol- 
lowing directions and salutations. 

1. Miss Janet Phillips Ridgefield New Jersey My 
dear Miss Phillips 

2. Mr Edward O Brown 2300 Broad Street Cleve- 
land Ohio My dear Sir 

3. Dr James L Merchant Lincoln High School Main 
Street and Grant Avenue Galveston Texas My dear Dr 
Merchant 

4. Mrs Francis Burton 217 Walnut Street Philadel- 
phia Pa Dear Madam 

5. Professor George H Brooks Cornell University 
Ithaca New York My dear Professor Brooks 

49. Formal invitations and short formal notes 
are written in the third person. In writing these 
invitations and notes, great care should be taken 
to keep to the third person throughout. Abbre- 
viations should be avoided in letters of this kind. 

A Formal Invitation 

The Senior Class of the Lincoln High School request 
the pleasure of Professor Jameson's company at their 
class-day exercises, to be held on Friday evening, the sixth 
of June, at eight o'clock, in the Burnside Avenue As- 
sembly Rooms. 

A Formal Note 

Will Miss Anderson kindly permit John to leave school 
to-day at noon, in order that he may meet his sister, who 



LETTER-WRITING 87 

will arrive by the twelve-thirty train? By excusing him 
as requested, Miss Anderson will greatly oblige his father, 
Edward L. Gardiner. 
15 Vista Avenue, 
May the eleventh. 

Business Letters 

50. The heading and the address of a business 
letter are similar to those used in a formal letter. 
In the salutation of a business letter the name is 
seldom used, the form of salutation being gen- 
erally one of the following: Dear Sir; Dear 
Madam; Gentlemen; Dear Sirs; Dear Mesdames; 
Ladies (the last two when writing to two or more 
ladies). A colon followed by a dash is often 
placed after the salutation. 

Yours truly, Yours respectfully, Yours very 
truly, are the forms of complimentary close most 
often used in business letters. 

51. Business letters should be polite, but short 
and to the point. Contractions, however, such as 
the forms " Y'rs," " Rec'd," and the expression 
11 Received your letter and would say " instead of 
" I have received your letter and in answer I 
would say " should be avoided in business letters 
as in all others. A business letter should state 
exactly what the writer means and expects. The 
person who receives a business letter should not 
have to guess at any of the facts necessary for 



88 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

him to know, and should be able to answer the 
letter with as little trouble as possible. 

As it is very important to know how to write 
a business letter clearly and correctly, several 
specimens of different kinds are given below. 

The Safety Moving Company, 
194 Calumet Ave., 
Cincinnati, April 20, 19 14. 
Mrs. J. L. Reed, 

14 Chelsea Place, Cincinnati. 
Dear Madam: — 

In answer to your letter of April 19, request- 
ing that we send some one to arrange for the moving of 
your furniture on May 1, we assure you that the order 
will have our immediate attention. 

Yours very truly, 

Arthur Williams, 
Manager, Safety Moving Company. 



135 Worthington Avenue, 
Detroit, Feb. 7, 19 14. 
Messrs. Grantly and Bold, 
17 Main Street, Detroit. 
Gentlemen : — 

In answer to your advertisement in this morn- 
ing's " Free Press," I wish to apply for the position of 
office assistant. 

I am seventeen years of age, live with my parents, and 
have completed the first three years of the course in the 
Lincoln High School. I am enclosing a copy of the 



LETTER-WRITING 89 

recommendation given to me by the principal, Mr. S. 
Harding, upon my leaving the school last month. This 
application is in my own handwriting. 

I should be glad to call at any time convenient to you. 
Yours respectfully, 

Howard Bates. 



1627 Arlington St., 
Galesburg, Illinois, 
Nov. 27, 19 14. 
The Brentano Company, 
Fifth Ave. and 27 St., 
New York, N. Y. 
Gentlemen : — 

Kindly send to Miss Eleanor Crofts, Catons- 
ville, Maryland, one copy of " The Oxford Book of 
Verse," edited by A. Quiller-Couch, and published by the 
Clarendon Press. I am enclosing a money order for two 
dollars and sixty-three cents ($2.63), to cover the cost 
of the book and postage. 

By forwarding the book to Miss Crofts as promptly 
as possible, you will greatly oblige 

Yours very truly, 

Mark C. Lufton. 

Written 

Exercise 57. Copy the following business let- 
ter, arranging and punctuating the parts correctly. 

78 Liberty Street New York July 3 19 13 Dear Sir We 
acknowledge the receipt of your letter of July 1 and re- 
gret exceedingly that you have decided not to renew your 



90 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

lease for another year We note what you say in regard 
to permitting the house to be shown Very truly yours 
James L Franklin Agent Mr. E R Taylor 75 Riverside 
Drive New York 

52. The superscription of a letter is placed on 
the envelope, and consists of the name and address 
of the person to whom the letter is written. Each 
item of the superscription is usually written on a 
separate line. No punctuation need be used in 
the superscription, except the period after an ab- 
breviation. 



Miss 


Edith 


Day 






18 Hawthorne Avenue 






Boise 


City 
Idaho 



Written 
Exercise 58. Write the superscriptions of let- 
ters addressed to the persons named below. 

1. One of your classmates. 

2. The principal of your school. 

3. The publishers of this book. 

4. A business firm in a large city. 



LETTER-WRITING 91 

5. A friend in Canada. 

6. A member of Congress. 

7. The publishers of a magazine. 

8. A passenger on an outgoing ocean steamer. 

9. A ten-year-old boy who lives at 13 Langham 
Street, London. 

10. The librarian of a public library. 

Exercise 59. Write one of the letters sug- 
gested in the following list. 

1. A short letter to a friend thanking him or her 
for a birthday gift. 

2. A note to accompany a Christmas gift sent to a 
relation who is older than yourself. 

3. A note of congratulation to a friend who has 
won some honor. 

4. A note to some older person who knows you well, 
asking permission to refer to him or her for a recom- 
mendation. 

5. A letter to a classmate who is recovering from 
an illness. 

6. A note of thanks for a letter of recommendation. 

7. A note accepting an informal invitation to a 
party. 

8. A letter to the mother of a friend at whose 
home you have made a week's visit. 

9. A letter which Tom Sawyer, if he had become a 
pupil in this school, might have written to Huckleberry 
Finn, telling about his first week's experiences. 

10. A letter which a young reader of " Ivanhoe " 
might have written to Sir Walter Scott, to protest 
against the marriage of Ivanhoe to Rowena, instead of to 
Rebecca. 



92 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 60. Review the directions for writing 
formal and business letters, and write one of the 
letters suggested in the following list. 

1. A letter to the author of a recently published book 
or magazine story, telling the writer of the pleasure he 
or she has given you. 

2. A letter to the head of a business house, explain- 
ing that you are the person who has been recommended 
to him for a position, and asking for an interview. 

3. A letter to the secretary of a college, asking for 
information about entrance requirements. 

4. A letter to the manager of a school baseball or 
basketball team, asking to have a game or series of games 
arranged with your school team. 

5. An answer to one of the following advertisements: 

BOY wanted by railroad company; bright, en- 
ergetic office boy, about 16 years of age; 
state experience,' if any, and salary expected. 
L233, Times. 

EDITORIAL department of publishing house 
wants intelligent young woman, high school 
graduate, to handle routine work ; good op- 
portunity and not too much expected of em- 
ployee at start. E44, Times. 

6. An answer to the letter on page 89, signed by 
Mark C. Lufton, saying that the book has been sent 
as requested. 

7. The letter to which the letter on page 88, signed 
by Arthur Williams, is the answer. 

8. A letter to an insurance company, asking to have 
your fire insurance policy renewed. 

9. A letter to your landlord, asking to have some 
necessary repairs attended to. 



LETTER-WRITING 93 

10. A letter to the librarian of a traveling library, ask- 
ing for a collection of books on some subject in which 
you are particularly interested. 

Oral 

Exercise 61. Choose one of your classmates 
for your secretary. Let him or her write on the 
blackboard, from your dictation, a short letter on 
a subject selected from the following list. Ask 
your other classmates to criticize the work when 
completed. 

i. Asking for the correction of a mistake in a bill. 

2. Sending notice of change of address to a depart- 
ment store with which you have an account. 

3. Enclosing money in payment of membership dues 
in some organization. 

4. Enclosing a check for deposit in a bank. 

5. Requesting a firm of manufacturers to send you 
their illustrated catalogue. 

6. Ordering some article listed in a catalogue sent 
you by a firm of manufacturers. 

7. Renewing your subscription to a magazine. 

8. Notifying the publishers of a magazine that you 
will not renew your subscription. 

9. Asking a steamship company to furnish you with 
information in regard to rates of passage and sailing 
dates. 

10. Informing a manufacturer of some defect in an 
article which you have recently purchased, and asking 
to have the defect remedied. 



CHAPTER X 
SPELLING 

53. English spelling is often a troublesome 
matter to persons who are not good spellers by 
nature. A great many words are spelled in a 
way different from that which the pronunciation 
would lead us to expect, and puzzling questions 
frequently arise about doubling a consonant or 
dropping a final e. A really earnest endeavor to 
avoid mistakes, added to the habit of consulting 
a pocket dictionary, will do wonders towards im- 
proving the work of even the poorest speller. 
But, though only a few of the difficulties of the 
subject can be disposed of by studying spelling 
rules, there are some very helpful rules which 
everyone should know perfectly. These rules are 
given below. 

54. Rule I. Ei and Ie. I follows all letters 
except c, when the two vowels are sounded to- 
gether as e. 

The rule for deciding upon the order of these 
two vowels can probably be remembered most 
easily when put into rhyme : 

94 



SPELLING 95 

/ before e, 

Except after c, 

Or when sounded like a, 

As in neighbor and weigh. 

Note. — Seize, weird, leisure, and neither are excep- 
tions. 

Exercise 62. Write the following words, fill- 
ing the blanks with ie or ei, according to Rule I. 

th — f dec — t bes — ge for — gn 

rec — ve s — ze handkerch — f p — ce 

y — Id misch — f rec — pt ach — ve 

bel — ve r — ndeer n — ce cone — t. 

55. Rule II. Words ending in silent e keep 
the final e before a suffix beginning with a conso- 
nant, and drop it before a suffix beginning with a 
vowel; but if the e is preceded by c or g it is kept 
before a and o. 

Note. — Acknowledgment, judgment, argument, awful, 
truly, duly, singeing, dyeing, shoeing, and hoeing are ex- 
ceptions. Tingeing and tinging are both correct. 

Exercise 63. Explain the formation of the fol- 
lowing words, according to Rule II. 

measuring serviceable desirable unmanageable 

advantageous notable lovable indescribable 

changing arguing peaceable achievement 

changeable argument excitable managing 

pursuing combining surprising management 

56. Rule III. Words accented on the last 
syllable, and ending in a single consonant preceded 



96 



ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



by a single vowel, double the final consonant 
before a suffix beginning with a vowel. 

Note. — Words of one syllable come under this rule. 
Examples 



permit 


permitting 


permitted 


hop 


hopping 


hopped 


prefer 


preferring 


preferred 


occur 


occurring 


occurred 


rub 


rubbing 


rubbed 



57. Rule IV. Words not accented on the last 
syllable, and ending in a single consonant preceded 
by a single vowel, do not double the final con- 
sonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel. 





Examples 




suffer 


suffering 


suffered 


profit 


profiting 


profited 


differ 


differing 


differed 


summon 


summoning 


summoned 


mutter 


muttering 


muttered 



Exercise 64. Add the suffix ing to the follow- 
ing words, according to Rides III and IV. 



plan 


conquer 


inter 


proffer 


benefit 


stop 


develop 


demur 


deter 


compel 


widen 


omit 


acquit 


enter 


murmur 



SPELLING 



97 



Exercise 65. Write the following selection, 
changing each verb enclosed in the parenthesis to 
a form of the verb in which the suffix ing or ed 
is used. 

After the Greeks had been (besiege) Troy for ten 
years in vain, they were finally (compel) to have re- 
course to a stratagem. This is what (occur). After 
constructing a huge wooden horse, and (conceal) armed 
men within its body, they (plan) a deception which was 
skillfully carried out by one of their number, Sinon by 
name. Sinon succeeded in (persuade) the Trojans to 
transport the horse within the city walls. When the city 
was (wrap) in slumber, the armed men emerged and 
(open) the gates. The Greeks then (enter) and (con- 
quer) the city. 

58. Rule V. Words ending in y preceded by 
a consonant change y to i before any suffix that 
does not begin with i. 







Examples 




steady 


steadily 


happy 


happier 


busy 


business 


fancy 


fanciful 


dainty 


daintiest 


merry 


merriment 


rely 


reliance 


lively 


livelihood 


body 


bodies 


carry 


carried 



Written 

Exercise 66. Add one of the following suffixes, 
ly, ful, ness, ment, ance, to the words in the fol- 
lowing list. 



98 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



pity 


kindly 


necessary 


pretty 


accompany 


duty 


defy 


guilty 


lazy 


manly 


hearty 


mercy 



59. Rule VI. Full, all, well, and till, used 
either as suffix or as prefix, generally drop one /. 

Examples 

altogether always cheerful welcome 

although already playful welfare 

almost awful useful until 

Note. — All right is written as two words. 

60. Rule VII. The prefixes dis and mis do 
not require any change in the spelling of the word 
which they precede. 

Examples 



dis-appoint 


disappoint 


dis-approve 


disapprove 


dis-satisfied 


dissatisfied 


mis-interpret 


misinterpret 


mis-spell 


misspell 


dis-solve 


dissolve 



Exercise 67. Form other words from the 
words in the following list by prefixing either mis 
or dis. 



section 


advantage 


solution 


step 


statement 


arrange 


apply 


understand 


appear 


similar 


represent 


inclined 



61. Rule VIII. A word or a prefix ending in 
a consonant does not drop the consonant before a 
suffix or a word beginning with the same conso- 
nant. 





SPELLING 


99 




EXAM] 


PLES 




stubborn 


stubbornness 


royal 


royally 


drunken 


drunkenness 


partial 


partially 


thin 


thinness 


relevant 


irrelevant 


natural 


unnatural 


movable 


immovable 


necessary 


unnecessary 


legible 


illegible 



Exercise 68. Use one of the suffixes ly or ness, 
or one of the prefixes im or un with each of the 
words in the following list. 

mutual 
original 
special 

Exercise 69. The following list contains words 
that are frequently misspelled. Learn to spell 
them. 



open 


named 


modest 


lean 


mobile 


migrate 


nerve 


formal 


moral 



absence 


assistance 


congratulate 


accidentally 


association 


conscience 


accommodate 


athlete 


conscious 


accuracy 


athletics 


convenience 


accustomed 


author 


cordially 


acquaintance 


beneficial 


correspondence 


acquire 


carriage 


courtesy 


agreeable 


celebrate 


curiosity 


anxiety 


character 


customer 


appearance 


chosen 


decide 


appreciate 


Christian 


decision 


appropriate 


Christmas 


descend 


argument 


college 


describe 


Arthur 


committee 


destroy 


ascertain 


comparative 


development 



100 



ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



dictionary 


humorous 


persevere 


discipline 


imaginary 


persuade 


discreet 


immediately 


Philip 


discretion 


immense 


Philippines 


divide 


intelligent 


physician 


divine 


interfere 


possession 


doctor 


interrupt 


precede 


ecstasy 


itself 


prejudice 


eighth 


literature 


preparation 


embarrass 


machinery 


privilege 


especially 


marriage 


proceed 


essential 


mathematics 


professor 


exaggerate 


mechanical 


pronunciation 


exceed 


medicine 


pursue 


excellent 


melancholy 


quiet 


exercise 


merely 


quite 


exhibit 


mischievous 


recede 


existence 


moreover 


recognize 


experience 


mysterious 


recollect 


extraordinary 


narration 


recommend 


familiar 


necessary 


religious 


February 


nineteen 


remembrance 


fiery 


ninth 


repetition 


foremost 


oblige 


review 


forty 


occasional 


scene 


fourteenth 


opponent 


secretary 


government 


opportunity 


separate 


grammar 


original 


shepherd 


grandeur 


parallel 


similar 


grateful 


partner 


sincerely 


Great Britain 


patriotic 


speech 


guard 


peculiar 


strength 


height 


performance 


succeed 



sufficient 


Tuesday 


variety 


tariff 


twelfth 


village 


tragedy 


undoubtedly 


villain 


truly 


usually 
Dictation 


Wednesday 



101 



Exercise 70. Each of the following exercises 
contains ten of the words included in the preceding 
lists. Be sure that you can write them correctly. 

i. On the twelfth of February, the birthday of Abra- 
ham Lincoln was celebrated with appropriate patriotic 
exercises. The famous Gettysburg speech was recited 
by Philip Johnson, a pupil of the eighth grade. The 
principal praised him for his excellent work. 

2. When Arthur received word that his absence on 
Wednesday would prevent him from competing for the 
prize offered by the professor of history, he was greatly 
disappointed. He would have preferred to go in spite of 
his physician s advice, but was not permitted to do so. 

3. Forty pupils presented themselves for examination 
last Tuesday. Many of them were surprised and dissatis- 
fied with the results, for there were nineteen who failed 
because they misspelled words which should have been 
familiar to them. It will undoubtedly be necessary for 
them to work hard if they wish to succeed in the next 
examination. 

4. During the Danish invasion of Britain King Al- 
fred's army was conquered, and he was compelled to take 
refuge from his pursuers in the hut of a peasant woman. 
She failed to recognize the stranger, and commanded him 
to make himself useful by watching the cakes that were 



102 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

baking on the hearth. He accidentally allowed one to 
burn; whereupon she exhibited her displeasure by boxing 
his ears. It can be readily imagined how embarrassed she 
was when she learned that her guest was the King. 

5. Our experience has shown us that a carefully- 
chosen committee can manage our athletics successfully. 
If we can persuade the same members to accommodate us 
by serving again, we shall have an excellent chance of 
defeating our opponents, especially as we are likely to 
have an opportunity of securing a field for practice. 

6. On the occasion of the quarrel among the gods 
for the possession of the Apple of Discord, it fell to the 
lot of the shepherd youth, Paris, to render the final 
decision. Had he been more discreet, he would probably 
have demurred, but as he was totally unconscious of the 
peculiar difficulties of the situation, he willingly agreed to 
pronounce judgment. 

7. The Pilgrim Fathers believed that religious free- 
dom was the most valuable of all privileges. They there- 
fore persevered steadily in their preparations for crossing 
the ocean, and deterred by no hardships, but urged on by 
their conscience, set sail in their frail bark, the " May- 
flower." 

8. Almost every boy or girl has sufficient strength to 
participate in some outdoor sport. If indulged in with 
discretion, such sports are thoroughly healthful and bene- 
ficial, and in a comparatively short time produce a marked 
improvement which is easily noticeable. 

9. Since the Suez Canal has immensely benefited the 
commerce of the world, a similar result should follow 
the opening of the Panama Canal. Moreover, the con- 
venience of travel will be greatly increased by this ad- 
vantageous method of communication. Altogether, if the 



SPELLING 103 

Canal fulfills expectations, we shall all be grateful to the 
men who have accomplished this wonderful feat of en- 
gineering. 

io. When Charles Dickens had reached his ninth year, 
the necessity for saving money forced his parents to live 
in a shabby house in London. A few years later, Charles 
was obliged to work in a blacking factory, where his 
acquaintances were men and boys of the poorest classes. 
Although he lived to become rich and famous, he never 
completely lost the remembrance of his sufferings at this 
time. In fact, the accuracy of his recollections is shown 
in " David Copperfield," the book in which he describes 
his early life. 



CHAPTER XI 

FIGURES OF SPEECH 

62. Each of the following pairs of sentences 
expresses an idea in two ways. In the first sen- 
tence of each pair the words are used in their 
ordinary meaning, and the idea is expressed as 
plainly as possible. In the second sentence the 
words are used in a sense different from the ordi- 
nary, and the idea is expressed in such a way as 
to seem more striking than if plain terms were 
used. 

1. (a) The lake was covered with ice. 

(b) Over the breast of the quivering lake was 
spread a coat of mail. 

2. (a) She is blushing deeply. 
(b) Red as a rose is she. 

3. (a) She shall soon be defeated. 

(b) Soon her pride shall kiss the ground. 

Forms of expression such as (b) in the exam- 
ples given above, in which words are used in a 
sense different from that belonging to their usual 
meaning, in order to convey the idea in a more 
striking or a more emphatic manner, are called 
figures of speech. Figures of speech are more com- 

104 



FIGURES OF SPEECH 105 

mon in poetry than in prose ; but even in our every- 
day language we make use of figures of speech, 
or figurative language, when we employ such ex- 
pressions as, a sharp tongue; a biting wind; as 
hungry as a bear; as dull as ditch-water; etc. 

63. The figures of speech oftenest used are as 
follows: simile, metaphor, personification, apos- 
trophe, and metonymy. 

64. The Simile. — A simile is a comparison 
between two things that are unlike in most re- 
spects, but have some one point of resemblance: 
as, 

The horse was as fleet as the wind. 

The comparison in a simile is usually introduced 
by like, as, or than. 

65. The Metaphor. — A metaphor is a com- 
parison in which the likeness between two things 
is expressed without the use of the words like or 
as, one thing being spoken of as being another 
which it resembles : as, 

Ye are the salt of the earth. 

Exercise 71. Find the similes and metaphors 
in the following sentences, and explain the resem- 
blance between the objects compared. 

i. As for man, his days are as grass; as a flower of 
the field, so he flourisheth. 



106 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

2. The world is a wheel, and it will all come round 
right. 

3. A spring of love gush'd from my heart. 

4. Like living fires they flit about. 

5. Your eyes are like the diamond bright, but mine 
are dull as lead. 

6. So let us catch life's favoring gale. 

7. Like summer tempest came her tears. 

8. The cherry-tree is ready robed, her bridal dress 
is on. 

9. She is more beautiful than day. 

10. Friendship is a sheltering tree. 

11. I warmed both hands against the fire of life. 

12. 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 

13. There was silence deep as death. 

14. The snow shall be their winding-sheet. 

15. There, swan-like, let me sing and die. 

16. Time was, when I was free as air. 

17. A fire's a good companionable friend. 

18. The king of the night is the bold brown owl. 

19. The righteous shall flourish like the palm-tree. 

Exercise 72. Express the following ideas, us- 
ing either a simile or a metaphor, as indicated. 

Example: (a) He answered very quickly. 

(Simile) His answer was as quick as a 
flash. 
(b) He did a great deal for the church to 
which he belonged. 
(Metaphor) He was a pillar of the 
church. 
1. The surface of the lake was perfectly smooth 
(simile). 



FIGURES OF SPEECH 107 

2. We learn more by experience than in any other 
way (metaphor). 

3. Queen Elizabeth was exceedingly vain (simile). 

4. I have worked very hard to get my task com- 
pleted (simile). 

5. The cuckoo announces the coming of spring 
(metaphor). 

6. His countenance reflects his mind (metaphor). 

7. The scout could run very swiftly (simile). 

8. He trembled noticeably, as he stood before his ac- 
cuser (simile). 

9. The oak is the mightiest of all the trees in the 
forest (metaphor). 

10. He is very timid (simile). 

66. Personification. — Personification is a 

figure of speech in which things without life are 
spoken of as though they had the qualities belong- 
ing to persons: as, 

The wind one morning sprang up from sleep. 
The sea saith : It is not in me. 

67. Apostrophe. — Apostrophe is a figure of 
speech in which we address ( 1 ) things without 
life as though they were living beings; or (2) the 
dead or absent as though they were living and 
present: as, 

(1) Blow, blow, thou winter wind! 

(2) Milton! thou shoulds't be living at this hour! 

Personification and apostrophe are seldom used 
in ordinary prose, but are found very often in 
poetry and oratory. 



108 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 73. Find the examples of personifica- 
tion and apostrophe that occur in the following 
sentences. 

i. "I am Miss Catherine's book," the Album speaks. 

2. Hence, rude Winter! crabbed old fellow! 

3. I leave thee, beauteous Italy! no more! 

4. Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky. 

. 5. The violets curtsied, and went to bed. 

6. Touch us gently, Time! 

7. But winter lingering chills the lap of spring. 

8. Dear common flower, that grow'st beside the way. 

9. The river glideth at his own sweet will. 
10. Wisdom is justified of her children. 

68. Metonymy. — Metonymy is a figure of 
speech in which the name of one thing is put for 
the name of another which has some association 
with it. Metonymy is sometimes confused with 
metaphor, since in both figures there is a change 
of names. The point to be observed in distin- 
guishing between them is that in a metaphor, the 
name of one object is used for that of another be- 
cause of some resemblance between the two things. 
For example, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was 
called " The Lion of the North," to show that he 
resembled a lion in being brave. In metonymy, on 
the other hand, the name of one object is used for 
that of another because there is some association 
of ideas other than that of resemblance between 
them. The name of a symbol may be used for the 
name of that which it signifies: as, "The 



FIGURES OF SPEECH 109 

Crescent," for the Turkish Empire; a cause may 
be named for an effect, or an effect for a cause: 
as, " the leaden death," for " the bullet "; a part 
may be named for a whole, or a whole for a part: 
as, " She had seen sixteen summers," for " sixteen 
years "; the material may be named instead of the 
thing made : as, " the pigskin " for " the football." 

Exercise 74. Tell which of the following sen- 
tences contain examples of metaphor, and which 
of metonymy , giving your reasons. 

1. It was a hard struggle to keep the wolf from the 
door. 

2. I am guided by the lamp of experience. 

3. The black bat, night, has flown. 

4. The deep moans round with many voices. 

5. The bright steel quivers at the victim's throat. 

6. The world's mine oyster, which I with sword will 
open. 

7. The pen is mightier than the sword. 

8. Hide me from day's garish eye. 

9. She was the joy of her father's old age. 

10. Cuba is the jewel of the Antilles. 

11. Make our heart thine ark. 

12. There were twenty sail in the harbor. 

13. He bore away the palm from a score of com- 
petitors. 

14. Waterloo was truly, as Tennyson says, a world- 
earthquake. 

15. The Constitution follows the flag. 

16. I warmed both hands before the fire of life. 



110 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

17. The head and the hoof of the law and the haunch 
and the hump is — Obey! 

18. 'Tis time to go to the Land of Nod. 

19. Youth is the spring of life; spring is the youth 
of the year. 

20. Scepter and crown 
Must tumble down, 

And in the dust be equal made 

With the poor crooked scythe and spade. 



CHAPTER XII 

WORDS AND WORD-FORMA- 
TION 

69. The intransitive verb (121) lie (mean- 
ing to recline) and the transitive verb (117) lay 
(meaning to place in position) are often confused. 
To use them correctly it is necessary to remember 
that the principal parts (114) of lie are: lie, lay, 
lying, lain; and that the principal parts of lay are : 
lay, laid, laying, laid. 

Exercise 75. Fill the blanks in the following 
sentences with some form of the verb lie or of the 
verb lay. 

1. I down for a few moments this morning. 

2. He who has thriven 

May abed till seven. 

3. the books on the shelves. 

4. Where the tree falls, there let it . 

5. down your arms! 

6. In his chamber, weak and dying, 
Was the Norman baron . 

7. They are the foundations of a new school- 
house. 

8. thy sheaf adown and come! 

9. Upon my buried body 
lightly, gentle Earth! 

Ill 



112 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

10. I have awake since dawn. 

ii. That was on with a trowel. 

12. Hush, my babe, still and slumber. 

13. I found the shawl where he had left it. 

14. The dog had at his master's feet all night. 

15. The pointer the partridge at his master's 

feet. 

16. He down the law to the assemblage. 

17. The knight was ■ low by his opponent's 

sword. 

18. The king was on his couch when the mes- 
senger approached. 

19. The Romans usually on couches when 

they took their meals. 

20. For centuries the documents had un- 
touched. 

70. The verb can, which expresses power or 
ability, is sometimes carelessly used instead of 
may, which expresses permission. 

Exercise 76. Fill the blanks in the following 
sentences with either may or can, and give the 
reason for your choice in each case. 

1. I be excused from reciting to-day? 

2. He be heard without difficulty. 

3. No one ever knows just how much pain he 

endure without flinching. 

4. Our teacher says that we answer the 

questions in any order we choose. 

5. Our teacher says that we solve the prob- 
lem easily. 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 113 

6. I solve this problem, do you think? 

7. we have the pleasure of your company? 

8. Of course I will help you if I . 

9. I will borrow your book for a few moments if I 



10. He that will not when he 



When he will he shall have nay. 

Exercise 77. The following pairs of words are 
very often confused. Learn the definitions in each 
case, and fill the blanks in the sentences with the 
proper words. 

f Principal — (1) most important; (2) the chief 
, x person; (3) the sum invested at 

I interest. 

(^ Principle — A rule for guiding action or thought. 

1. The of the school said that it w T as against 

his to overlook such a serious offense. 

2. Arnold's object was to restore the colonies 

to England. 

3. My cause for complaining of him is that 

I believe him to be a boy of no moral . 

4. The involved was the right of the South- 
ern States to secede. 

5. The was so large that its withdrawal was 

the cause of the bank's failure. 

6. Upon speaking to the , I was told that 

such requests were always refused, on . 

7. His care was his young charge, whose in- 
terests he protected as a matter of . 

8. I seem to be unable to master even the first 

of this science. 



114 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

g. The actor in the old Italian comedy was 

called Harlequin. 

10. He is a man of high , and would therefore 

make an excellent of a school. 

,,v ( Lose — To allow to escape from possession. 

[Loose — (i) to unfasten; (2) unfastened, or 
carelessly fastened. 

1. If you your purse, you will have no more 

change. 



2. Let the dog . 

3. I fear that you will your belt; it is so 



4. Do not confidence in our commander. 

5. no time in obeying my orders. 

6. The scarf was tied in a knot. 

7. " me, vagabond! " cried the hired assassin 

to the disguised Ulysses. 

8. " Foxes are ," was the password required 

by the sentinel. 

9. " I have received your book, and shall 

no time in reading it," was Disraeli's method of acknowl- 
edging an author's gift of his work. 

10. It is not wise to play fast and . 

, s j Effect — (1) to bring about; (2) a result. 
( Affect — To influence; (2) to assume falsely. 

1. The messenger did not his purpose. 

2. A great book can often the history of the 

world. 

3. Can we the desired change of policy with- 
out too great a disturbance? 

4. The medicine produced the desired . 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 115 

5. A child will often an injured air when 

it is reproved. 

6. I am sure that my testimony will — the 

judge favorably. 

7. Napoleon was ready to his ends by fair 

means or by foul. 

8. The of the testimony was to cause the 

prisoner's acquittal. 

9. How will the recent election the political 

situation in your state? 

10. The operation is almost certain to a 

cure. 



, « j Formerly — In times past. 

' ( Formally — In a ceremonious fashion. 

1. , children's letters to their parents were 



written and signed very . 

2. I did not know that you had lived in 

New York. 

3. The affair was managed more than I 

had expected. 

4. The new principal was introduced to the 

school. 

5. King Haakon of Norway was known as 

Prince Charles of Denmark. 

6. Men live longer to-day than they did . 

7. In the presence of all the court, the King was 
invested with the crown. 



8. Texas belonged to Mexico. 

9. A library membership was a much rarer 

privilege than it is at present. 

10. The two men greeted each other very . 



116 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 78. Fill the blanks in the following 
sentences with one of the two words enclosed in 
the parenthesis. 

1. (Funny, odd) The clown's antics were genuinely 
; it is very that the audience did not ap- 
plaud them more heartily. 

2. (Vain, proud) The captain of our team is not 

in the least of his strength, although we are 

very of the successes he has achieved. 

3. ( Idle, lazy) Many men who are not at all 

have been for some time on account of the failure 

of the mill-owner. 

4. (Character, reputation) Although Nero when a 

youth had a for virtue, his misconduct when he 

ascended the throne showed a depraved . 

5. (Expect, suppose) I it is unreasonable to 

that the arrival of our distinguished guest will 



not be delayed by the storm. 

6. (Liable, likely) The witness is to ap- 
pear at any moment; for if he does not obey the sum- 
mons, he is to imprisonment. 

7. (New, novel) My camera has a 

device for regulating the shutter. 

8. (Quite, fairly) Though my father sees 



well without his spectacles, when he wears them he can 

read fine print easily. 

9. (Rest, remainder) The bookseller spent the 

of the day in looking over the of his 

stock. 

10. (Sympathy, pity) I felt for the dog that 

had been injured, and for the little girl who was 

weeping because of the sufferings of her pet. 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 117 

II. (Crime, sin) It is a to tempt another 

to do wrong; although it is not always punishable as a 



12. (Part, portion) The fox divided the carcass into 

three — ; but the allotted to the lion was 

by far the largest. 

13. (Oldest, eldest) The daughter of the 

inhabitant of the village has just been married. 

14. (Famous, notorious) A • author and a 

gambler have both taken passage on that steamer. 

15. (Farther, further) I do not wish to do anything 

about the matter; I have already walked 

than I had intended. 

16. (Peaceable, peaceful) In this spot a per- 
son of a disposition might well enjoy life. 

17. (Modern, recent) Many books on edu- 
cation recommend the teaching of languages in 

place of Latin. 

18. (Grateful, thankful) I am very for your 

leniency, and that you have not deprived me of 

the opportunity of correcting my error. 

19. (Discovery, invention) The of wireless 

telegraphy and the of radium are two great scien- 
tific achievements of modern times. 

20. (Unlikely, improbable) It seemed that 

the jury would believe such an story as that told 

by the witness. 

71. The use of certain prepositions (198) af- 
ter certain words is not a matter of grammatical 
construction, but a matter of custom. For exam- 
ple, the expression different from is correct, while 
different to is incorrect; we say that we enter into 



118 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

an agreement, but enter upon a career. There are 
no rules to guide us in our choice of prepositions; 
in order to learn how to use them correctly it is 
necessary to note the custom of careful writers 
and speakers. 

Exercise 79. Fill the blanks in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences with one of the two prepositions 
in the parenthesis. 

1. (In, on) I rely your assistance, and 

confide your good judgment. 

2. (From, to) Though I dissent your first 

proposition, I am willing to agree the others. 

3. (For, to) The midshipman is responsible 

his captain absenting himself from duty. 

4. (With, to) According all accounts, he 

did not proceed in accordance the directions given 

him. 

5. (In, into) The official admitted us the 

museum, which we remained for several hours. 

Rip Van Winkle fell a deep sleep. 

6. (With, to) I am not familiar the French 

language. The passage given for translation was one 
which was very familiar me. 

7. (With, from) After the operation, the patient 

was quite free pain. He is very free 

his money. 

8. (In, at) She rejoices the possession of a 

beautiful voice. We rejoice the good news. 

9. (Besides, beside) a green meadow a 

stream used to flow. paying a fine, the offender 

was sentenced to imprisonment. 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 119 
IO. (In, of) He has had wide experience 



managing a yacht. I have had no experience the 

sort of life you describe. 

ii. (For, from) Will you excuse me 

troubling you ? May I be excused preparing the 

lesson ? 

12. (With, by) He was overwhelmed re- 
quests for his autograph. He was overwhelmed 

the warmth of the reception accorded him. 

13. (At, in) Lowell lived Elmwood, 

Cambridge. 

14. (To, in) my estimation, the candidate 

is unworthy to be elected. the best of my knowl- 
edge, I have stated the case correctly. 

15. (To, for) The lesson was admirably suited 

the class. I do not know any book more suitable 

the purpose of stimulating patriotism. 

16. (Upon, at) The speaker touched a va- 
riety of topics. The steamer touched Plymouth 

before reaching port at Hamburg. 

17. (Between, among) The kingdom of Poland was 

divided Germany, Russia, and Austria. A ditch 

was dug his field and mine. 

18. (Into, upon) The two parties agreed a 

settlement. They had entered business relations 

some years before. 

19. (In, with) " I am disappointed you," 

said John's teacher. " I am greatly displeased 

your work." 

20. (In, of) The city of Edinburgh consists 

the Old Town and the New Town. Politeness consists 

regarding your neighbor's comfort as well as your 

own. 



120 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

72. The meanings of the following pairs of 
words should be carefully kept in mind, and mis- 
takes in their use avoided. 

(a) Borrow (to take for a time) ; lend (to give for 
a time). 

(b) Bring (to carry towards) ; take (to carry away). 

(c) Let (to permit) ; leave (to allow to remain). 

(d) Most (nearly) ; almost (to the greatest extent). 

Exercise 80. Decide between the two words 
enclosed in the parentheses in each of the follow- 
ing sentences. 

1. (Bring) (take) these books into the next room. 

2. (Almost) (most) everybody knows the story of 
Rip Van Winkle. 

3. I cannot (let) (leave) you go skating, because I 
am not sure that the ice will hold. 

4. I will (let) (leave) you to decide the matter be- 
tween yourselves. 

5. Can you (lend) (borrow) me your knife for a 
moment? 

6. I (lent) (borrowed) this knife from Philip. 

7. If you will (bring) (take) your work to me, I 
will help you with it. 

8. I have looked (most) (almost) everywhere for 
my pen, but I cannot find it. 

9. One of the children was (left) (let) at home to 
take care of the house. 

10. Hop o' my Thumb tried not to (leave) (let) his 
parents lose their children in the forest. 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 121 

ii. Ali Baba's brother (borrowed) (lent) him a 
measure. 

12. Ali Baba (borrowed) (lent) a measure from his 
brother. 

13. Red Riding Hood was (bringing) (taking) some 
butter and eggs to her grandmother. 

14. (Most) (almost) all children like fairy stories. 

15. It was (most) (almost) extraordinary, thought 
Rip, that his faithful dog should have disappeared. 

16. Antonio (lent) (borrowed) three thousand ducats 
from Shylock. 

17. Cinderella's sisters would not (leave) (let) her 
go to the ball. 

18. The principal will (leave) (let) you go home, I 
am sure. 

19. The youngest daughter asked her father to (bring) 
(take) her a rose when he returned from his journey. 

20. If you (take) (bring) this note to the principal, 
I am sure that you will be excused. 

Exercise 81. In each of the following sen- 
tences substitute a single noun for the italicized 
expression. 

1. The life of a writer for the press is interesting. 

2. The hundredth anniversary of Dickens's birth was 
celebrated in 1912. 

3. Franklin's story of his own life is famous. 

4. The elephant is the largest of all four-legged ani- 
mals. 

5. iEsop wrote a number of stories in which animals 
are represented as having the power of speech. 

6. There is no branch of science more interesting 
than the study of animal life. 



122 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

7. The persons composing the upper classes had the 
upper hand in the government of the Greek cities. 

8. For many years Irving was official representative 
of his country at the court of Spain. 

9. Nero was a cruel and oppressive ruler. 

10. Pulaski and Kosciusko were men born in the same 
country. 

Exercise 82. In each of the following sentences 
substitute a single verb for the italicized expres- 
sion. 

1. The settlers made slaves of the unfortunate na- 
tives. 

2. He has grown taller than his brother. 

3. Atalanta ran more swiftly than her competitors in 
the race. 

4. In the archery contest, Locksley did better than all 
the other yeomen. 

5. Scott ascribed too little value to his own abilities. 

6. He bid higher than everyone else at the auction. 

7. The Board of Health requires us to remove all 
possibilities of infection from premises in which there has 
been contagious disease. 

8. In the Franco-Prussian War, the French thought 
too highly of their military strength. 

9. Tennyson lived longer than Browning. 

10. Pay back even the slightest service with gratitude. 

Exercise 83. In each of the following sentences 
substitute a participle (155) for the italicized ex- 
pression. 

1. When objects are looked at through a microscope, 
they are made to seem greater. 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 123 

2. Many kinds of household tasks are made easier by 
electricity. 

3. The workmen stated that they were paid less than 
they should have been. 

4. The danger has been made to seem greater than 
it really is. 

5. James II was removed from the throne in 1688. 

6. ' A good cause is sometimes made stronger by op- 
position. 

7. Many citizens have worked together to bring about 
this legislation. 

8. Men who have been proved guilty of crime are 
deprived of their right to vote. 

9. The passage was quoted incorrectly. 

10. In the time of the Roman republic, the duties of 
the consuls were made equal. 

Exercise 84. In each of the following sentences 
substitute a proper adjective (181) for the itali- 
cized expression. 

1. Columbus was a sailor born in Genoa. 

2. Tennyson and Browning were poets living in the 
reign of Queen Victoria. 

3. The heroines in many plays written by Shakespeare 
disguise themselves as boys. 

4. This is a string of beads made in Venice. 

5. Many thousands perished in the wars waged 
against Napoleon. 

6. The people living in Vienna are noted for their 
gayety. 

7. The painters belonging to Flanders were remark- 
ably skillful in depicting every-day life. 



124 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

8. The legends told by Homer are familiar to every 
student of history. 

9. " Romola " is a story of life relating to Florence. 
10. " Santa Lucia" is a song often sung by fishermen 

belonging to Naples. 

Exercise 85. In each of the following sentences 
substitute an adverb (192) for the italicized ex- 
pression. 

1. The witness gave his testimony of his own free 
will. 

2. I wish to apologize for the offense which I com- 
mitted without meaning to do so. 

3. At the battle of Zutphen, Sir Philip Sidney was 
wounded beyond hope of recovery. 

4. The general told his troops to advance with 
caution. 

5. The judge summed up in a few words. 

6. The rain fell for forty days without stopping. 

7. A well-bred boy does not behave without proper 
respect to his elders. 

8. The choice of Washington for president was ap- 
proved by everyone. 

9. Animals protect their young according to instinct. 
10. From time to time, the tyrant would show great 

favor to one of his subjects. 

Exercise 86. In each of the following sentences 
substitute an adjective (179) for the italicized ex- 
pression. 

1. Wamba loved his master with the fidelity of a dog. 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 125 

2. The little girl clapped her hands with the glee 
of a child. 

3. The opinion of the people was in favor of the 
war. 

4. The dancer glided across the stage with the grace 
of a serpent. 

5. The belief that gold could be made from iron 
was once held by many men of learning. 

6. Blenheim Castle is a residence of a duke. 

7. No laborer without skill can command high wages. 

8. Many enterprises of merchants were wrecked dur- 
ing the war. 

9. Life in the suburbs offers many attractions. 
10. Edison is a man of great energy. 

Exercise 87. Form nouns from the following 
adjectives. 

1. real 6. regular 11. friendly 16. young 

2. gallant 7. absent 12. modest 17. certain 

3. resolute 8. brief 13. vain 18. desolate 

4. decent 9. captive 14. obstinate 19. gay 

5. idle 10. generous 15. severe 20. simple 

Exercise 88. Form nouns from the following 
verbs. 

1. compare 6. rival 11. reject 16. grieve 

2. employ 7. appear 12. detain 17. revel 

3. dedicate 8. mock 13. organize 18. fail 

4. redeem 9. destroy 14. reveal 19. occupy 

5. injure 10. depart 15. occur 20. exist 



126 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



Exercise 89. 


Form 


ad) 


'e ctives from 


the follow- 


ing nouns. 












i. fancy 


6. 


mountain 


11. despot 


16. marvel 


2. trouble 


7. 


spirit 




12. regard 


17. office 


3. event 


8. 


poet 




13. angel 


18. king 


4. majesty 


9. 


melody 




14. tune 


19. knight 


5. change 


10. 


reason 




15. war 


20. rascal 


Exercise 90. 


Form 


ad) 


e ctives from 


the follow- 


ing verbs. 












1. effect 


6. 


grieve 




11. trust 


16. pay 


2. talk 


7. 


move 




12. rely 


17. play 


3. tire 


8. 


boast 




13. attend 


18. apply 


4. obey 


9- 


impress 




14. eat 


19. relate 


5. read 


10. 


decide 




15. forget 


20. insist 



Exercise 91. Form verbs from the following 
nouns. 



I. 


author 


6. 


circle 


11. 


gulf 


16. 


tyrant 


2. 


beauty 


7- 


flame 


12. 


organ 


17. 


slave 


3- 


witch 


8. 


grief 


13. 


arm 


18. 


length 


4. 


apology 


9. 


regard 


H. 


throne 


19. 


head 


5. 


friend 


10. 


critic 


15. 


image 


20. 


courage 



Exercise 92. Form other nouns from the fol- 
lowing nouns. 

1. hero 6. fellow 11. mathematics 16. knight 

2. savage 7. magic 12. idiot 17. senior 

3. beggar 8. use 13. king 18. physic 

4. companion 9. slave 14. rogue 19. state 

5. history 10. scene 15. president 20. forest 



WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION 



127 



Exercise 93. From the following adjectives 
form other adjectives exactly opposite in meaning. 



I. 


honorable 


8. 


respectful 


15. 


noble 


2. 


religious 


9- 


civil 


16. 


popular 


3- 


personal 


IO. 


modest 


17- 


convenient 


4- 


changeable 


ii. 


resolute 


18. 


advantageous 


5- 


partial 


12. 


accurate 


19. 


correct 


6. 


formal 


13- 


responsible 


20. 


similar 


7- 


lovely 


14. 


sufficient 


21. 


logical 



PART II 

THE RULES OF GRAMMAR AND 
PRACTICE IN APPLYING THEM 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE SENTENCE AND ITS 
PARTS 

73. A sentence is a group of words expressing 
a complete thought: as, 

My name is Norval. 

74. Every sentence either ( i ) tells something 
or (2) asks something. A sentence which tells is 
declarative; a sentence which asks is interrogative: 

as, 

( 1 ) I saw three ships. 

(2) Who killed Cock Robin? 

75. A declarative sentence may state a fact, a 
wish, or a command. When a sentence stating a 
fact, a wish, or a command expresses strong feel- 
ing, it becomes exclamatory. When it does not 
express strong feeling it is non-exclamatory. In- 
terrogative sentences which express strong feeling 
may also be considered exclamatory, and are then 
punctuated with the exclamation point: as, 

Who would have thought it! 

Exercise 1. Tell whether the following sen- 
tences are ( 1 ) declarative or interrogative, or 
(2) exclamatory or non-exclamatory. 

131 



132 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

1. Where is the true man's fatherland? 

2. The mariners heard the warning bell. 

3. How short your walk has been! 
4.. Now tell us all about the war. 

5. Row me to the Inchcape Rock. 

6. What doth the poor man's son inherit? 

7. Good people all, of every sort, 
Give ear unto my song. 

8. The mountain and the squirrel 
Had a quarrel. 

9. What a good boy am I ! 

10. Grant me some knight to do battle for me. 

11. My very dog has forgotten me! 

12. What excuse can I give to Dame Van Winkle! 

13. Polly, put the kettle on! 

14. Go home at once! 

15. How can you endure such treatment! 

76. The subject of a sentence is the part that 
names the thing about which something is said: as, 

Stars twinkle. 

77. The predicate of a sentence is the part that 
tells something about the thing named by the sub- 
ject: as, 

Lightning flashes. 

78. Every sentence may be divided into two 
parts: (1) The subject with all the words belong- 
ing to it, sometimes called the complete subject; 
(2) the predicate with all the words belonging 
to it, sometimes called the complete predicate. 
The complete subject and the complete predicate, 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 133 

taken together, will include all the words in a sen- 
tence : as, 

Complete Subject Complete Predicate 

Monday's child is fair of face. 

Exercise 2. Divide each of the following sen- 
tences into its complete subject and complete 
predicate by drawing a vertical line between the 
two parts. 

i. The brown owl sits in the ivy-bush. 

2. A hundred fairies danced last night. 

3. The day is cold, and dark, and dreary. 

4. Cold December brings the sleet, 
Blazing fire, and Christmas treat. 

5. The breakers were right beneath her bows. 

6. Twelve fair counties saw the blaze on Malvern's 
lonely height. 

7. The waves rush in on every side. 

8. Sir Ralph the Rover walked his deck. 

9. King Bruce of Scotland flung himself down. 
10. Tuesday's child is full of grace. 

79. In most declarative sentences the subject 
is placed before the predicate. In interrogative 
sentences and in poetry the subject is frequently 
placed after the predicate. To show the complete 
subject and complete predicate in such sentences it 
is necessary to place the subject first: as, 

Where lies the land? The land | lies where? 
Down came the rain. The rain | came down. 



134 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 3. Divide each of the following sen- 
tences into complete subject and complete predi- 
cate, changing the order of the words whenever 
necessary. 

i. Down ran the wine into the road. 

2. A pleasanter spot you never spied. 

3. Somewhat back from the village street 
Stands the old-fashioned country seat. 

4. The Minstrel-boy to the war is gone. 

5. At Aerschot, up leaped of a sudden the sun. 

6. Swift to its close ebbs out life's little day. 

7. Close by the margin of the brook 
The old duck made her nest. 

8. Where is the grave of Sir Arthur O'Kellyn? 

9. Round her eyes her tresses fell. 

10. With blackest moss the flower-plots 
Were thickly crusted, one and all. 

11. Unlifted was the latch at night. 

12. A traveler, by the faithful hound, 
Half-buried in the snow was found. 

13. Full knee-deep lies the winter snow. 

14. Whither leads this winding road? 

15. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

16. Then came the merry maskers in. 

17. His home the mole makes underground. 

18. The scattered gleanings of a feast 
My frugal meals supply. 

19. To the dry grass and the drier grain 
How welcome is the rain ! 

20. Then away went the wind in its holiday glee. 
80. Since the study of grammar aims to explain 

the exact use of each word in a sentence, it is 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 135 

customary to call only the most necessary part of 
the complete subject, the subject; and the most 
necessary part of the complete predicate, the 
predicate verb, and to explain the use of the other 
words in the sentence separately: as, 

Subject Predicate Verb 

The moon, pale and yellow, rose slowly from a bank 
of clouds. 

81. Two or more subjects connected by and, 
or, or nor, make a compound subject. Two or 
more predicate verbs connected in the same way 
make a compound predicate: as, 

Tower and hamlet rose in arms. 

They fought the dogs and killed the cats. 

Exercise 4. Find the subjects and predicate 
verbs of the sentences in Exercise 3. 

82. Words are divided, according to their use 
in sentences, into eight classes called the parts of 
speech. The parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunc- 
tions, and interjections. 

Table of Parts of Speech 

Noun. — A noun is a word used to name an 
object, a person, an action, or an idea. 

The rain is over and gone. 



136 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Pronoun. — A pronoun is a word used to take 
the place of a noun. 

Here, a little child, / stand. 

Adjective. — An adjective is a word used to 
modify a noun or a pronoun. 

I saw the glad sunshine. 

Verb. — A verb is a word used to assert action 
or being. 

I wandered by the brookside. 

Adverb. — An adverb is a word used to modify 
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Merrily rose the lark. 

Preposition. — A preposition is a word used 
to show the relation between a noun or a pronoun 
and some other word in the sentence. 

I sailed to a distant land. 

Conjunction. — A conjunction is a word used 
to connect words or groups of words. 

The minstrel was infirm and old. 

Interjection. — An interjection is a word used 
to express some strong emotion. 

Alas! all hope is fled! 

83. Some common words may be used as 
more than one part of speech. To determine the 
part of speech it is necessary to decide what use 
the word has in the sentence : as, 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 137 

Munich! all thy banners wave. (Verb.) 
So dies a wave along the shore. (Noun.) 
Open the door and walk in. (Adverb.) 
She is in her grave. (Preposition.) 

Exercise 5. In the following sentences tell 
what part of speech each italicized word is. 

1. Lay down your arms! He quickly arms him for 
the fray. 

2. My native land, good-night! The kangaroo is a 
native of Australia. 

3. Hold fast that which is good. Will you not break 
your long fast? We crossed the ocean in a fast steamer. 

4. I serve the Fairy Queen. I have a venturous 
fairy that shall seek the squirrel's hoard. 

5. In Liberty's unclouded blaze we lift our heads. 
" Blaze away at them, men ! " shouted the captain. 

6. Dr. Blimber kept a select school for young gentle- 
men. Boys usually select their leaders wisely. 

7. The long light shakes across the lakes. A light 
heart makes an easy road. They light the lamps in the 
fishermen's huts. 

8. Still stands the schoolhouse by the road. Still 
waters run deep. 

9. By the moon we sport and play. It is a poor 
sport that is not worth the candle. 

10. Answer a fool according to his folly. A soft 
answer turneth away wrath. 

11. His bark is worse than his bite. Let dogs delight 
to bark and bite. 

12. I could better have spared a better man. He left 
his situation, hoping to better himself. 

13. Blow, bugle, blow! Liberty's in every blow! 



138 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

14. Let independence be our boast. Boast not thj^self 
of to-morrow. 

15. After a storm comes a calm. It was in the calm 
and silent night. Calm yourself; there is no danger. 

16. In a just cause the weak are strong. Bad laws 
often cause more evils than they remedy. 

17. There's small choice in rotten apples. He was a 
choice spirit. 

18. Travelers must be content. Content thyself with 
little. He that wants money, means, and content is with- 
out three good friends. 

19. The desert shall blossom as the rose. He had 
pitched his tent in a desert place. Desert not your friend 
in his extremity. 

20. Let me speak first. It is the first step which 
counts. 

21. Look before you leap. No tears dim the sweet 
look that Nature wears. 

22. Round numbers are generally false. He had 
reached the topmost round of the ladder. Round and 
round we run. 

23. Thou too, sail on, O Ship of State! Set sail for 
the shore. 

24. State your case clearly. The state apartments at 
Windsor are shown when the King is absent. The body 
of the dead hero lay in state. 

25. He rules w T ith a rod of iron. The game has a 
few simple rules. 

26. Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking. 

27. I waited for the train at Coventry. Train up a 
child in the way he should go. 

28. Sloth finds the down pillow hard. I slept as 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS PARTS 139 

though my bed had been of down. Jack fell down. The 
ball rolled down the slope. 

29. Speak low, woman, speak low ! Your Grace hath 
a low voice. The cattle low as they are driven home- 
ward. 

30. Virtue lies in the struggle, not the prize. Prize 
that which is best. Macaulay was a prize scholar. 

31. 'Tis the last rose of summer. Love thyself last. 
Can the improvement last? 

Exercise 6. Use each of the following words 
in sentences, first as nouns, then as verbs. 

Air, bridge, challenge, cloud, cut, dream, feast, head, 
hold, hunger, link, mind, right, seal, shade, spoil, stone, 
time, trick, wrong. 

84. A group of related words which does not 
contain a subject and predicate is called a phrase. 

( 1 ) To break the law is dangerous. 

(2) The warrior is a man of might. 

(3) The poet laughed with glee. 

85. A group of related words which contains 
a subject and predicate and which is used as part 
of a sentence is called a clause, 

( 1 ) We know that life is short. 

(2) When night falls the prisoner will be freed 

(3) The man who is most learned is not always the 
wisest. 

Exercise 7. Tell which of the following groups 
of words are phrases, which are clauses, and 
which are sentences. 



140 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

i. When banners are waving. 

2. When will he return? 

3. Into the sunshine. 

4. Where are you going? 

5. If I were you. 

6. Under a spreading chestnut tree. 

7. Thirty days hath September. 

8. While the shepherds watched their flocks. 

9. Forth goes the woodman. 

10. Beside the river's rushing stream. 

11. Beside a green meadow a stream used to flow. 

12. As I walked by myself. 

13. Though the battle was lost. 

14. Whereon our little bark had thrown a shade. 

15. Amidst the flashing and feathery foam. 

16. To do thee wrong. 

17. Blest is thy dwelling-place! 

18. Within a thick and spreading hawthorn bush. 

19. Before I give you a penny. 

20. Who loved me so dearly. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE NOUN 

86. Nouns are of three kinds: (i) proper, 
naming a particular person or thing; (2) common, 
denoting one or more of a class of persons or 
things; (3) abstract, denoting some quality, state, 
or action. 

( 1 ) This Julius C&sar was a mighty man. 

(2) Red as a rose is she. 

(3) Honesty is the best policy. 

Exercise 8. Find the nouns in the following 
selection, and tell which are common, which 
proper, and which abstract. 

Twin brothers who have been called upon for service 
in a regiment in Paris are so alike that it is impossible 
to distinguish Jacques from Jean. The other day one of 
the pair was confined to barracks, but, by changing his 
cap with its regimental number for that of his brother, 
the defaulter was able to pass the guard with impunity 
whenever he wished to go out. The colonel of the regi- 
ment has now issued the following order: " The soldier 
Bonhomme (even number) will wear his hair as long as 
the regulations, construed with the utmost leniency, will 
allow, and will shave his beard and moustache. The 
soldier Bonhomme (odd number) will allow his beard 
and moustache to grow full, and will have his hair cut 

141 



142 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

with regularity as closely as possible by the regimental 
barber." 

87. When a noun is used to denote a group 
of individuals considered as a whole, it is called a 
collective noun. Collective nouns may be either 
common, as, army ; or proper, as, Congress. 

Number 

88. The form taken by a noun when it denotes 
one thing is called the singular number; when it 
denotes more than one thing, the plural number. 

89. The plural of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s or es to the singular : as, bridge, bridges; 
box, boxes. 

1. Nouns, ending in s, sh, ch (soft), x, and z 
form their plurals by adding es to the singular: as, 
gas, gases; bush, bushes; church, churches; tax, 
taxes; topaz, topazes. 

2. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant 
change v to i and add es to form the plural; nouns 
ending in y preceded by a vowel add s: as, city, 
cities; journey, journeys. (Soliloquy has the 
plural soliloquies.) 

3. Most nouns ending in / or fe add s to form 
the plural: as, roof, roofs. 

4. The following nouns change / or fe to v or 
ve t and add s or es: 



knife 


calf 


elf 


thief 


life 


half 


loaf 


wolf 


sheaf 


shelf 


leaf 


beef 



THE NOUN 143 

(Staff may take either staffs or staves, according to 
the meaning.) 

5. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a con- 
sonant add es to form the plural. 



cargo 


buffalo 


mango 


tornado 


hero 


motto 


potato 


tomato 


negro 


volcano 


echo 


mosquito 



6. All nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel, 
and some ending in o preceded by a consonant, 
add s to form the plural. 



portfolio 


curio 


canto 


oratorio 


trio 


piano 


halo 


solo 


cameo 


bamboo 


soprano 


alto 



90. The chief cases of irregular formation of 
the plural are noted in the following list: 

1. The nouns ox and child have for their plurals oxen 
and children. (Brother may take either brothers or 
brethren.) 

2. Some nouns form their plurals by changing a vowel 
sound: as, tooth, teeth; man, men; woman, women; 
goose, geese, etc. 

3. A few nouns have the same form for both singu- 
lar and plural : as, deer, sheep, trout, swine, cod, etc. 

4. Some nouns are used only in the plural: as, 
scissors, dregs, thanks, vitals, clothes, scales, shears, 
trousers, etc. 

5. Some nouns, plural in form, are generally used as 
singular: as, ethics, politics, mathematics, news, athletics. 



144 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

6. Most compound nouns form their plural by add- 
ing s to the principal word: as, father-in-law, fathers-in- 
law; looker-on, lookers-on; man-of-war, men-of-war. A 
few compound nouns add s at the end of the words; as, 
forget-me-not, forget-me-nots. The nouns man-servant 
and woman-servant take a double plural: as, men- 
servants, women-servants. For the plural of Miss Smith 
we may say either " the Miss Smiths " or " the Misses 
Smith! 3 

7. Some nouns have two forms for the plural, each 
form having a separate meaning: as, brother, brethren or 
brothers; genius, geniuses or genii. 

8. Some nouns which have been borrowed from 
foreign languages keep their foreign plurals. A few of 
the commonest among these are: Alumnus, alumni; 
alumna, alumna; datum, data; fungus, fungi; radius, 
radii; genus, genera; series, series; apparatus, apparatus; 
crisis, crises; phenomenon, phenomena; beau, beaux; 
madam, mesdames. (Mr. takes the plural Messrs., an 
abbreviation of the foreign noun Messieurs.) 

Exercise 9. Arrange the following words in 
two columns, singular and plural, and supply the 
opposite forms. 

Attorney, dormice, Frenchman, memoranda, species, 
buffalo, scissors, alumnae, lily, genera, valley, deer, com- 
mander-in-chief, Hindoo, radii, dwarf, journey, measles, 
physics, pence. 

Exercise 10. Change the italicized words in 
the following sentences to the plural number, and 
make any other changes that the grammar or the 
sense may require. 



THE NOUN 145 

1. The statesman made an eloquent speech. 

2. The health of the child was affected by breath- 
ing the gas. 

3. The witness could furnish no proof that the 
woman was a thief. 

4. Mr. Smith is a loyal alumnus of Harvard College. 

5. In the old-fashioned tragedy, the hero often ut- 
tered a long soliloquy. 

6. Looking down into the valley, one could see the 
pointed roof of the peasant's house. 

7. Mm Smith is a loyal alumna of Radcliffe College. 

8. The knave admitted his guilt in setting fire to 
the cargo of the merchantman. 

9. The Norman received his Saxon son-in-law hos- 
pitably, and offered him refreshment after his journey. 

10. When the crisis occurred, the aide-de-camp was 
sent to demand that a court-martial be held. 

11. The calf was rendered lame by the injury to its 
hoof. 

12. When the little princess was christened, the good 
fairy was present. 

13. The motto was written on the talisman. 

14. I heard the echo of the shot fired by the battery. 

15. Bring me the potato that I placed on the shelf. 

Gender 

91. Gender is the use of words or certain forms 
of words to denote sex. Nouns that denote indi- 
viduals of the male sex are of the masculine 
gender, as, man, heir; nouns that denote individ- 
uals of the female sex are of the feminine gender, 



146 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

as, woman, heiress; nouns that denote things with- 
out sex are of the neuter gender, as, table, tree. 

92. There are three ways of denoting gender: 
( i ) by the use of pairs of words; (2) by adding 
the ending — ess for the feminine, sometimes with 
a change in the spelling; (3) by prefixing words 
to indicate the sex: as, 

Masculine Feminine 

( 1 ) wizard witch 

(2) count countess 

(3) man-servant maid-servant 

{Executrix, administratrix, and testatrix are feminine 
nouns formed in the Latin way from executor, adminis- 
trator, and testator.) 

Exercise 11. Change the following sentences, 
replacing the masculine nouns by feminine nouns, 
and the feminine nouns by masculine nouns. Make 
any other changes required by the grammar or by 
the sense. 

Example: The duke's nephew wished to become an 
actor. 
The duchess's niece wished to become an 
actress. 

1. She was the administratrix of a vast estate, which 
was to be divided among several nieces of the testator. 

2. My uncle makes a delightful host. 

3. The little lad was chased by the old gray gander. 

4. The Empress of Germany has on several occa- 
sions visited the Czarina of Russia. 



THE NOUN 147 

5. The hungry tiger carried off the finest ram" of 
all the flock. 

6. The priests of the gods worshiped by the Greeks 
were regarded with great reverence. 

7. The shepherdess was lamenting the loss of her 
favorite ewe. 

8. The hero in the fairy tale was entrapped by a 
cruel wizard. 

9. The prince yielded to the tempter, and became a 
traitor to his country. 

10. The little heir to the throne was waited upon by 
a count and a baron. 

Case 

93. The relation in which a noun stands to 
some other word in the sentence is called its case. 
There are four cases: (1) the nominative; (2) 
the genitive; (3) the accusative; (4) the dative. 

94. A noun is said to be declined when its 
case-forms for both numbers are regularly ar- 
ranged. The nominative, accusative, and dative 
cases have the same form, which is sometimes 
known as the common form. The genitive is the 
only case that has a special form. 

95. Declension of Nouns 

Singular Plural Singular Plural 

Nom. boy boys man men 

Gen. boy's boys' man's men's 

Ace. boy boys man men 

Dat. boy boys man men 



148 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

96. A noun used (i) as the subject of a verb; 
(2) after a linking verb (121) or a verb in the 
passive voice (118), is in the nominative case. 
The noun used after a linking verb or a verb in 
the passive voice denotes the same person or thing 
as the subject, and is called the predicate nomi- 
native. 

( 1 ) The day is cold and dark and dreary. 
( v ( Thou art the man. 

1 He was made monarch long ago. 

97. A noun used to address a person or thing 
by name is in the nominative case and is known 
as the noun of address. The noun of address is 
in the second person (159) because it denotes the 
person spoken to. 

Help me, Cassius, or I sink. 

Exercise 12. In the following sentences find 
the nouns in the nominative case. 

1. Richard was a most gallant soldier, and a born 
leader of men in war. 

2. The Normans and the Saxons seemed one people 
by this time. 

3. A suppliant am I, O King, who come to bring 
you gifts. 

4. " But, my son, who will defend me and guide me 
when I hatfe lost thee? " whimpered /Egeus. 

5. The sailors of King Minos say that he places the 
captives in a strange prison which is called the Labyrinth. 



THE NOUN 149 

6. Queen Victoria was called Empress of India, and 
was the first English sovereign who bore an imperial 
title. 

7. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 

8. Washington was unanimously elected president. 

9. O my prince! where is your faithful retainer? 
10. Switzerland became a republic in 1296. 

98. A noun used with a participle (155) to 
form an independent phrase (216) is in the 
nominative case and is said to be in the nominative 
absolute construction: as, 

The culprit appeared, his head bowed with grief. 

99. A noun used in an exclamation is said to 
be in the nominative of exclamation : as, 

Heaven and Earth! She beheld the Spectre Bride- 
groom. 

100. A noun or pronoun used to explain 
another noun or pronoun takes the same case as 
the word explained and is said to be in apposition 
with it. A noun in apposition may be in (1) the 
nominative case; (2) the accusative case; (3) 
the dative case : as, 

1. So we were left galloping, J oris and /. 

2. Me, his brother, he hated most of all. 

3. I gave the King, my master, my aid in time of need. 

Exercise 13. In the following sentences find 
the nouns in the nominative case. 



150 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

i. The verdict being for acquittal, the prisoner was 
set free. 

2. Two great soldiers were born in 1769, Napoleon 
and Wellington. 

3. At last Henry, the son of Matilda and Geoffrey, 
made peace with Stephen. 

4. Thou looking on, I shall not fail. 

5. A horse! a horse! My kingdom for a horse. 

6. The first of the Stuart Kings of England was 
James, the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. 

7. Alas, what folly! How could he commit it! 

8. The King of all the forest trees was an oak, victor 
over a hundred winter storms. 

9. The wicked wretch ! May I never hear his name 
again ! 

10. At sunrise she escaped her captors, God aiding her. 

11. The English leader at the battle of Hastings was 
Harold, the son of Earl Godwin. 

12. He sighed again, his momentary anger passing. 

13. They pass so soon — those fleeting mortal lives! 

14. Oh that flagon! that wicked flagon! thought Rip 

15. After a while he went away, the dealer accompany- 
ing him. 

101. A noun is in the genitive case when it 
takes a form ( 1 ) to denote possession or (2) to 
show some other connection of ideas: as, 

(1) The soldiers horse (the horse belonging to the 
soldier). 
An hours drive (a drive lasting an hour). 



( 2 ) 

The law's delay (the delay caused by the law). 

102. The genitive case in the singular is 



THE NOUN 151 

formed by adding the apostrophe and s ('s) to 
the nominative: as, boy, boy's. 

103. The genitive case in the plural is formed 
(i) by adding the apostrophe (') alone to the 
nominative plurals which end in s, and (2) by 
adding the apostrophe and s ('s) to nominative 
plurals which do not end in s: as, boys, boys' ; men, 
men's. 

104. The genitive sign is added to each of 
two nouns if separate ownership is implied, but 
to the second noun only, if joint ownership is im- 
plied: as, Tennyson's and Browning's poems; 
William and Mary's reign. 

105. Compound nouns add the genitive sign 
to the last word only: as, Henry the Third's 
reign; my father-in-law's visit. When a noun de- 
noting possession is followed by another noun in 
apposition ( 100) , the genitive sign is added to the 
noun in apposition: as, for my servant David's 
sake. 

Exercise 14. Give the genitive form of each 
of the following expressions. 

Example: The books of the boys; the boys' books. 

1. The duties of the clergymen. 

2. The campaigns of the Duke of Marlborough. 

3. The good-will of our fellow-men. 

4. The good-will of our fellow-students. 

5. The home of my son-in-law. 



152 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

6. The poems of Longfellow and Whittier. 

7. The candies of Park and Tilford. 

8. The manners of the hostess. 

9. The dress of her mistress. 
10. The cub of the tigress. 

Exercise 15. In the following sentences, 
change the number of the nouns in the genitive 
case, making any other change that the grammar 
or the sense may require, but keeping the genitive 
form in every instance. 

Example: The fairy's gift kept the prince from harm. 
Changed: The fairies' gifts kept the prince from harm. 

1. The workman's hours are too long. 

2. The royal princesses' tutors were carefully chosen. 

3. A man's clothes are, as a rule, less expensive than 
a woman's. 

4. The child's toys are lying about. 

5. The ladies' hats and cloaks can be left in this 
room. 

6. Mr. Smith's invitation was forwarded yesterday. 

7. My brother-in-law's home is in the West. 

8. The boy watched the monkey's antics with great 
delight. 

9. The teacher's orders were obeyed promptly. 

10. The boy's books were lying on the floor. 

11. The negro's demands were not excessive. 

12. The thief's sentence was a year in prison. 

13. The jackdaw had stolen the puppy's food. 

14. I cannot believe the witness's statements. 

15. The seaman's tales were thrilling. 



THE NOUN 153 

106. A noun is said to be in the accusative 
case when it is (i) the direct object of a transi- 
tive verb (117); (2) used with a preposition 
(198) ; (3) in apposition (100) with a noun or 
pronoun in the accusative case. 

( 1 ) Read my little fable. 

(2) Rally round the flag. 

(3) The Iliad was written by Homer, the blind 
bard. 

Exercise 16. In the following sentences find 
the nouns in the accusative case. 

1. I did my plain duty. 

2. Lands he could measure, time and tide presage. 

3. Are you fond of the country? 

4. Scott died at Abbotsford, a beautiful mansion in 
southern Scotland. 

5. Among all the competitors, he captured the prize. 

6. One word he said over and over. 

7. When you grow to manhood and have power, use 
it with tenderness. 

8. " Peter Pan " was written by Barrie, a Scotch 
author. 

9. He drew a bucket of water from the well. 
10. One lesson I can give you for every day. 

107. A noun in the accusative, case is some- 
times used as an adjunct accusative after certain 
transitive verbs (124), such as make, create, 
elect, etc. The adjunct accusative denotes the 
same person or thing as the direct object of the 
verb. 

The animals made the fox their spokesman. 



154 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

108. The verbs ask, teach, forgive, and some 
others are followed by two accusatives, one of 
a person, the other of a thing. The noun or 
pronoun denoting a person is the direct object; 
the noun denoting a thing is called a secondary 
object: as, 

The coach taught his men a new signal. 

In the passive voice (118), the direct object be- 
comes the subject of the verb, while the secon- 
dary object remains as a retained object: as, 

The men had been taught a new signal by the coach. 

109. A noun in the accusative case is some- 
times used to express a measure of time, distance, 
or value, and is called the adverbial accusative: 
as, 

He slept a whole hour. 
We travelled many miles. 
It is worth many a groat. 

110. A noun or pronoun in the accusative 
case is sometimes used with an infinitive (153) 
to form the object of a verb. The noun or pro- 
noun thus used is the subject of the infinitive. 

We believe Richard to be honorable 

Exercise 17. In the following sentences find 
the nouns in the accusative case. 

1. The bells were ringing all night. 
3. Ay, call it holy ground. 



THE NOUN 155 

3. Red Riding Hood asked the wolf several questions. 

4. A first folio of Shakespeare's plays is worth its 
weight in gold. 

5. Do you believe Kipling to be a great poet? 

6. A century ago the telegraph had not been invented. 

7. Elizabeth made James her heir. 

8. Canute taught his courtiers a much-needed lesson. 

9. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old at the time of 
his death. 

10. The colonists named the country Virginia. 

111. A noun is in the dative case when it is 
used as an indirect object to denote the person or 
thing indirectly affected by the action : as, 

Cato gives his little senate laws, {to the senate) 
Who will find this king a crown? {for this king) 

In the passive voice (118), if the indirect ob- 
ject becomes the subject, the direct object remains 
as a retained object : as, 

The soldier was offered a reward by his captain. 

Exercise 18. In the following sentences find 
the nouns in the dative case. 

1. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. 

2. I have written my friend a letter. 

3. Give the poor dog a bone. 

4. You have done the poor man grievous wrong. 

5. You have caused your parents much anxiety. 

6. The employer promised his workmen higher 
wages. 

7. The farmer bought his daughter a piano. 



156 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

8. The envoy brought the king a rich gift. 
g. I lent my classmate my French grammar. 
10. The advertisement offers the finder a substantial 
reward. 

112. To parse a noun, tell (i) its class: 
whether common, proper, or abstract; (2) its 
person; (3) its number; (4) its gender; (5) its 
syntax or construction: case and the reason for 
the case. 

Example: My father lived at Blenheim then. 

Father is a common noun, third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender. It is in the nominative case, sub- 
ject of the verb lived. 

Exercise 19. Parse the nouns in the following 
sentences. 

1. The mother of Ulysses was called Anticleia; she 
was the daughter of King Autolycus, who lived near 
Parnassus, a mountain on the mainland. 

2. There's a new foot on the floor, my friend. 

3. One friend at court Bacon found in the Earl of 
Essex, the favorite of Elizabeth. 

4. The bugle's note, and cannon's roar the death- 
like silence broke. 

5. Then spoke the bride's father, his hand on his 
sword. 

6. Scarcely four months after the bankruptcy, Scott's 
wife died. 

7. A man he was, to all the country dear, 
And passing rich, with forty pounds a year. 



THE NOUN 157 

8. Two years after Oliver was born, his father moved 
to Lissoy, another and a better parish. 

9. George III offered Johnson a pension of three 
hundred pounds a year. 

10. Charles II made Dryden poet-laureate, with a 
yearly salary of two hundred pounds and a butt of sack. 

11. Penelope, hearing this tale, wept and said that 
6he herself had given Ulysses the brooch and the gar- 
ments. 

12. His own people called the child Odysseus, but 
the name was changed into Ulysses. 

13. The letter being delivered, the servant returned 
and brought his master the desired answer. 

14. A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy 
his crimes. 

15. In a chair sat, fallen forward and half asleep, a 
man in whose gray hair was a circlet of gold. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE VERB 

113. Verbs may be classified according to form 
or conjugation (136) as regular and irregu- 
lar; according to their meaning as transitive and 
intransitive; according to their use, as principal 
and auxiliary. 

114. The principal parts of a verb are (1) 
the first person of the present tense; (2) the 
first person of the past tense; (3) the present 
participle; (4) the past participle: as, ask, asked, 
asking, asked. 

115. A regular verb is a verb that forms its 
past tense and past participle by adding d or ed 
to the present. An irregular verb is a verb that 
does not form the past tense and past participle 
by adding d or ed to the present. The past par- 
ticiple of a verb can always be found by filling the 

blank in the expression: / have {written, 

begun, seen, found, etc.) . 

116. Some verbs, such as burn, hang, strew, 
have two forms in the past tense or past par- 
ticiple, and are said to be redundant. Some verbs 
lack one or more of their principal parts, and are 
said to be defective. Besides the auxiliaries may, 

158 



THE VERB 



159 



shall, and will, the chief defective verbs are can, 
must, ought, need, and beware. 

Table of Irregular Verbs 



Present 




Past 




Past Participle 


am 




was 




been 


arise 




arose 




arisen 


awake 




awoke 




awaked 


bear (produce) 


bore 




born 


bear (carry) 


bore 




borne 


beat 




beat 




beaten 


begin 




began 




begun 


behold 




beheld 




beheld 


bend 




bent 




bent 


bereave 




bereaved 


or bereft bereaved or bereft 


beseech 




besought 




besought 


beset 




beset 




beset 


bet 




bet or betted 


bet or betted 


bid (to 


command) 


bade 




bidden 


bid (to offer money 


) bid 




bid 


bind 




bound 




bound 


bite 




bit 




bitten 


bleed 




bled 




bled 


blend 




blent or 1 


blended 


blent or blended 


blow 




blew 




blown 


break 




broke 




broken 


breed 




bred 




bred 


bring 




brought 




brought 


build 




built 




built 


burn 




burnt or 


burned 


burnt or burned 


burst 




burst 




burst 


buy 




bought 




bought 



160 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



Present 


Past 




Past Participle 


can 
cast 


could 
cast 








cast 


catch 


caught 




caught 


chide 


chid 




chidden 


choose 


chose 




chosen 


j cleave 
( cleave 


(cling) cleaved 




cleaved 


(split) cleft or 


clove 


cleft or cloven 


cling 


clung 




clung 


clothe 


clad or 


clothed 


clad or clothed 


come 


came 




come 


cost 


cost 




cost 


creep 


crept 




crept 


crow 


crew or 


crowed 


crowed 


cut 


cut 




cut 


dare 


durst or 


• dared 


dared 


deal 


dealt 




dealt 


dig 


dug 




dug 


do 


did 




done 


draw- 


drew 




drawn 


dream 


dreamt 


or dreamed dreamt or dreamed 


drink 


drank 




drunk 


drive 


drove 




driven 


dwell 


dwelt or dwelled 


dwelt or dwelled 


eat 


ate 




eaten 


fall 


fell 




fallen 


feed 


fed 




fed 


feel 


■ felt 




felt 


fight 


fought 




fought 


find 


found 




found 


flee 


fled 




fled 


fling 


flung 




flung 


fly 


flew 




flown 





THE VERB 


j 


Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got or gotten 


gird 


girded or girt 


girded or girt 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung or hanged 


hung or hanged 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


hew 


hewed 


hewn or hewed 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt 


knelt 


knit 


knit or knitted 


knit or knitted 


know 


knew 


known 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


lean 


leant or leaned 


leant or leaned 


leap 


leapt or leaped 


leapt or leaped 


learn 


learned or learnt 


learned or learnt 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie (lie down) 


lay 


lain 


light 


lit or lighted 


lit or lighted 



161 



162 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow- 


mowed 


mown or mow T ed 


partake 


partook 


partaken 


pay 


paid 


paid 


pen 


pent or penned 


pent or penned 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quitted or quit 


quitted or quit 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


saw- 


sawed 


sawn or sawed 


say 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


sew 


sewed 


sewed or sewn 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shear 


sheared 


shorn or sheared 


shed 


i shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown 





THE VERB 


163 


Present 


Past 




Past Participle 


shrink 


shrank 




shrunk or shrunken 


shut 


shut 




shut 


sing 


sang 




sung 


sink 


sank 




sunk or sunken 


sit 


sat 




sat 


slay 


slew 




slain 


sleep 


slept 




slept 


slide 


slid 




slid 


sling 


slung 




slung 


slink 


slunk 




slunk 


slit 


slit 




slit 


smell 


smelt or smelled 


smelt or smelled 


smite 


smote 




smitten 


sow 


sowed 




sown or sowed 


speak 


spoke 




spoken 


speed 


sped 




sped 


spell 


spelt or 


spelled 


spelt or spelled 


spend 


spent 




spent 


spill 


spilt or 


spilled 


spilt or spilled 


spin 


spun 




spun 


spit 


spit or 


spat 


spit 


split 


split 




split 


spoil 


spoiled 


or spoilt 


spoiled or spoilt 


spread 


spread 




spread 


spring 


sprang 




sprung 


stand 


stood 




stood 


steal 


stole 




stolen 


stick 


stuck 




stuck 


sting 


stung 




stung 


stink 


stank 




stunk 


strew 


strewed 




strewn or strewed 


stride 


strode 




stridden 



164 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 



Present 


Past 




Past Participle 


strike 


struck 




struck or stricken 


string 


strung 




strung 


strive 


strove 




striven 


swear 


swore 




sworn 


sweep 


swept 




swept 


swell 


swelled 




swollen or swelled 


swim 


swam 




swum 


swing 


swung 




swung 


take 


took 




taken 


teach 


taught 




taught 


tear 


tore 




torn 


tell 


told 




told 


think 


thought 




thought 


thrive 


throve or thrived 


thriven or thrived 


throw 


threw 




thrown 


thrust 


thrust 




thrust 


tread 


trod 




trodden 


wake 


woke or 


waked 


waked 


wear 


wore 




worn 


weave* 


wove 




woven 


weep 


wept 




wept 


wet 


wet or wetted 


wet or wetted 


win 


won 




won 


wind 


wound 




wound 


wring 


wrung 




wrung 


write 


wrote 




written 



Exercise 20. Give the principal parts of each 
of the verbs in the following list and tell whether 
the verb is regular or irregular. 

tell, desire, come, flee, fly, find, open, hear, profit, 



THE VERB 165 

measure, say, hate, know, suffer, catch, plan, see, enter, 
forget, lend. 

117. A transitive verb denotes action received 
by some person or thing. The person or thing 
receiving the action must be named or expressed 
in the sentence; the doer of the action need not 
be named. The person or thing receiving the 
action may be named by (i) the object of the 
transitive verb, or (2) the subject of the transitive 
verb : as, 

(1) Columbus discovered America. 

(2) America was discovered by Columbus. 

Exercise 21. In the following sentences tell 
whether the subject or the object names the person 
or thing receiving the action. 

1. Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair. 

2. For eighteen years England was ruled by King 
Canute. 

3. The rock was hid by the surge's swell. 

4. No sound of joy or sorrow was heard from either 
bank. 

5. He scoured the sea for many a day. 

6. The mariners heard the warning bell. 

7. So boldly he entered the Netherby Hall. 

8. Nine brave attempts were counted. 

9. The bride kissed the goblet; the knight took it up. 

10. Thomas a Becket was murdered by four courtiers. 

11. The rich man's son inherits lands. 

12. Gas was first used in the streets of London in 
1812. 



166 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

13. I met a little cottage girl. 

14. With many a curve my banks I fret. 

15. Alaska was purchased by the United States in 
1867. 

118. When the subject of a transitive verb de- 
notes the doer of the action the verb takes the 
form called the active voice. When the subject 
denotes the person or thing receiving the action, 
the verb takes the form called the passive voice. 

Eli Whitney invented the cotton-gin. (Active voice.) 
The cotton-gin was invented by Eli Whitney. (Pas- 
sive voice.) 

119. The passive voice is formed by prefixing 
the forms of the verb to be (137) to the past 
participle of a transitive verb. Intransitive verbs 
have no voice. 

120. When a transitive verb is changed from 
the active voice into the passive voice, the object 
of the active voice becomes the subject of the 
passive voice : as, 

Sir Walter Scott wrote " The Lady of the Lake." 
" The Lady of the Lake " was written by Sir Walter 
Scott. 

Exercise 22. In the following sentences change 
the verbs in the active voice to the passive voice, 
and those in the passive voice to the active voice. 

1. Rome never conquered the whole of Britain. 

2. The wooden churches were replaced by stone 
ones. 



THE VERB 167 

3. The last years of Henry II were disturbed by 
revolts. 

4. The soldier waved on high the sword of his 
fathers. 

5. Words are made by letters of the alphabet set 
together. 

6. In the monasteries, books were written and copied 
by the monks. 

7. All the lords acknowledged Arthur as their king. 

8. Tennyson wrote many other poems besides " The 
Idylls of the King." 

9. One whole group of ballads tells the wonderful 
deeds of Robin Hood. 

10. Year after year the same play was acted by the 
same guild. 

11. In York, the shipwrights acted the Building of 
the Ark, and the fishmongers the Flood. 

12. The sea-power of Spain was crippled by the de- 
struction of the Armada. 

13. Johnson wrote " Rasselas " in a single week. 

14. The shipowners accepted Fynn's offer readily 
enough. 

15. No time was lost by Fynn's employers in getting 
rid of him. 

121. Intransitive verbs are (1) complete or 
(2) linking verbs. A complete verb expresses 
action not received by any person or thing. A 
linking verb does not express action. It merely 
links the subject to the word or words that com- 
plete the statement. 

1. I come to bury Caesar. 

2. Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains. 



168 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 23. In the following sentences tell 
whether the verbs are transitive or complete in- 
transitive verbs, 

i. The horses neighed, and the oxen lowed. 

2. The tall pink foxglove bowed his head. 

3. King Bruce of Scotland braced his mind. 

4. The sly little dormouse crept out of his hole. 

5. The bee brings honey home. 

6. The violets curtsied and went to bed. 

7. So like an arrow away he flew. 

8. The kitten sleeps upon the hearth. 

9. Up leaped of a sudden the sun. 

10. By Hasselt, Dirck groaned, and cried Joris, " Stay 
spur!" 

11. The sailor sighs as sinks his native shore. 

12. The sea-birds screamed as they wheeled around. 

13. The cricket chirrups on the hearth. 

14. My father lived beside the Tyne. 

15. Love swells like the Solway; but ebbs like its tide. 

122. The chief linking verb is the verb to be. 
The verbs become, seem, look, appear, feel, and 
some others are frequently used as linking verbs. 
The word which is joined to the subject by a 
linking verb may be ( 1 ) a noun, called the 
predicate nominative (96), or (2) an adjective 
called the predicate adjective : as, 

( 1 ) I am the King. 

(2) The way was long. 

Verbs in the passive voice are sometimes fol- 



THE VERB 169 

lowed by predicate nominatives or predicate ad- 
jectives (124) : as, 

(1) Fulton's steamship was called the "Clermont." 

(2) The prisoner was found guilty. 

Exercise 24. /;/ the following sentences find 
the predicate nominatives and adjectives. 

1. Web-spinner was a miser old. 

2. How silly now seems our dispute! 

3. Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the withered 
leaves lie dead. 

4. The colt became a favorite. 

5. I am a linen-draper bold. 

6. And broader still became the blaze, and louder 
still the din. 

7. Yet beautiful and bright he stood. 

8. His heart was mirthful to excess. 

9. But the Rover's mirth was wickedness. 

10. " Now art thou a bachelor, stranger? " quoth he. 

11. Pleasant it was to his eye. 

12. The broken sheds looked sad and strange. 

13. My mind to me a kingdom is. 

14. Meanwhile the Princess grew daily more and more 
fair. 

15. The Shepherds also, watching their flocks by night, 
were almost sure to make the people laugh. 

16. This movable stage was called a pageant. 

17. Sir Thomas More was made Lord Chancellor by 
Henry VIII. 

18. Goldsmith was thought very stupid by his first 
teacher. 



170 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

19. Many children are made timid by hearing ghost 
stories. 

20. Lowell was appointed ambassador to England. 

123. Some verbs, such as sing, learn, speak, 
etc., may be used either transitively or intransi- 
tively. When the thing sung, learned, or spoken 
is named in the sentence, the verb is transitive; 
when it is not named the verb is intransitive. 

(1) He speaks French. (Transitive.) 

(2) He speaks distinctly. (Intransitive.) 

Exercise 25. Tell whether the verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences are used transitively or intransi- 
tively. 

1. The north wind sings a doleful song. 

2. Sing again with that sweet voice. 

3. Jane walked abroad, all clad in white. 

4. Sir Ralph the Rover walked his deck. 

5. Improve each shining hour! 

6. His health improves daily. 

7. Storm-clouds gathered over the hilltops. 

8. I gathered these flowers for you. 

9. One man in his time plays many parts. 

10. The kitten plays with the falling leaves. 

11. Her vessels sail the seas. 

12. Every Saturday numerous steamers sail for 
Europe. 

13. Backward, turn backward, O Time in your flight! 

14. Turn, turn thy hasty foot aside! 

15. Speak gently, kindly, to the poor. 

16. He spoke words of comfort to the bereaved 
mother. 



THE A^ERB 171 

17. Strike while the iron is hot. 

18. They strike mine eyes, but not my heart. 

19. A crowd collected around the injured man. 

20. They collected money for him. 

124i The transitive verbs name, make, elect, 
etc., sometimes take as their adjunct accusative 
(107) a noun or an adjective which completes the 
meaning of the verb and describes the direct ob- 
ject: as, 

( 1 ) The Puritans made Cromwell Protector. 

(2) Grief made the mother zvild. 

When verbs of making, naming, electing, etc., 
are changed to the passive voice, the direct object 
becomes the subject, and the adjunct accusative 
becomes the predicate nominative (96) or the 
predicate adjective (122) : as, 

1. Cromwell was made Protector by the Puritans. 

2. The mother was made wild by her grief. 

Exercise 26. In each of the following sen- 
tences find the adjunct accusative, tell what verb 
it completes and to what noun it relates. 

1. The wolves called Mowgli brother. 

2. Expectation makes a blessing dear. 

3. None think the great unhappy but the great. 

4. Napoleon made his brother King of Westphalia. 

5. The Queen appointed Lady Suffolk her maid of 
honor. 

6. Love will make our cottage pleasant. 

7. The animals appointed the dog their spokesman. 



172 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

8. A thousand clansmen called Fergus master. 

9. Shy she was, and I thought her cold. 
10. And her hat, with shady brim, 

Made her tressy forehead dim. 

125. An auxiliary verb is a verb that helps to 
form the moods and tenses of another verb. The 
verbs used as auxiliaries are be, have, do, shall 
(should), will (would), may (might). 

126. A principal verb is a verb that is helped 
by an auxiliary verb to form some of its moods 
and tenses. The verbs be, have, and do may be 
used (1) as principal verbs or (2) as auxiliaries: 
as, 

(1) I am the King. (2) I am called master here. 
(1) I have no brother. (2) I have j "ought hard. 
(1) I do my best. (2) I do believe his story. 

127. The forms taken by a verb to show agree- 
ment with the person (159) and number of 
the subject are called the person and number of 
the verb. 

128. The regular changes in form to show 
person and number are the ending st or est in 
the second person singular of the present and past 
indicative and the ending s or es in the third 
person singular of the present. The irregular 
verb to be has different forms for the singular 
and plural in the present and past tenses of the 
indicative mood (137). 





THE 


VERB 


Present 




Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


I am 


We are 


I was 


Thou art 


You' are 


Thou wast 


He is 


They are 


He was 



173 

Past 

Plural 
We were 
You were 
They were 

129. The mood of a verb is the form that it 
takes (i) to assert a fact, or ask a question about 
a fact; (2) to express a mere thought or idea; 
(3) t0 gi ye a command. 

130.. Verbs that make direct statements of 
fact or ask direct questions about facts are in the 
indicative mood. Verbs that express state or 
action as something merely thought of but not 
actually existing are in the subjunctive mood. 
Verbs that express commands or entreaties are in 
the imperative mood. 

Boldly they rode and well. (Indicative mood.) 

I wish I were in fairyland. (Subjunctive mood.) 

Go to the ant, thou sluggard. (Imperative mood.) 

Exercise 27. In the following sentences tell the 
mood of each verb. 

1. I wish I were a robin. 

2. Waken, lords and ladies gay. 

3. My men, put out the boat. 

4. "What ails you, child?" She sobbed, "Look 
here!" 

5. Gather up the fragments that remain, that noth- 
ing be lost. 

6. The law is good, if a man use it lawfully. 



174 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

7. I wish it were in my power to serve you. 

8. Pay goodly heed, all ye who read. 

9. If thine enemy hunger, feed him. 

10. Write me as one who loves his fellow-men. 

131. Tenses are forms of the verb to show the 
time of an action or a condition, and the degree 
of its completeness. Since there are three periods 
of time, the present, past, and future, in which an 
action may take place, the three principal tenses 
are the present, the past, and the future. An 
action which is said to be completed within present, 
past, or future time, is expressed by the present 
perfect, past perfect, or future perfect tense. 

132. There are, besides, two other tenses of 
the indicative mood, the past future, which uses 
the auxiliary would and the past future perfect, 
which uses the auxilaries would have. These 
tenses are used chiefly in substantive clauses (222) 
after verbs of saying, thinking, etc., which are 
themselves in the past tense : as, 

I believed that they would come. 

I felt sure that she would have written sooner. 

133. The forms of the eight tenses of the 
indicative mood in the first person singular are as 
follows : 

Present. I write Present Perfect. I have written 

Past. I wrote Past Perfect. I had written 

Future. I shall or will Future Perfect. I shall or will 

write have written 



THE VERB 175 

Past Future. I should or would write 

Past Future Perfect. I should or would have written 

134. The subjunctive mood has four tenses : 
the present, the past, the present perfect, and the 
past perfect. The tense-forms of the subjunctive 
do not change to show person and number, except 
in the second person singular of the past tense. 
The imperative mood has only the present tense. 

135. All perfect tenses are formed by the aid 
of the verb have, used as an auxiliary verb : as, 

Present Perfect. I have seen 

Past Perfect. I had seen 

Future Perfect. I shall or will have seen 

Past Future Perfect. I should or would have seen 

136. Conjugation is the regular arrangement 
of the forms of a verb according to person, num- 
ber, voice, mood, and tense. 

137. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE 

INDICATIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 

Singular Plural 

1st per. I am 1st per. We are 

2d per. Thou art 2d per. You are 

3d per. He is 3d per. They are 

Past Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I was 1. We were 

2. Thou wast 2. You were 

3. He was 3. They were 



176 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Future Tense 
Singular Plural 

i. I shall be i. We shall be 

2. Thou wilt be 2. You will be 

3. He will be 3. They will be 

Past Future Tense 
Singular Plural 

. T S should ) , , \ht S should ) . 

1. I 1 1^ rbe 1. We i ,, be 

( would ) I would ) 

„ ,-p, { shouldst ) , v ( should ) , 

2. Thou i u . rbe 2. You i , , - be 

( wouldst ) ( would ) 

. it j should ) . r™ ( should ) , 

3' He \ would [be 3- They | would } be 

Present Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I have been 1. We have been 

2. Thou hast been 2. You have been 

3. He has been 3. They have been 

Past Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I had been 1. We had been 

2. Thou hadst been 2. You had been 

3. He had been 3. They had been 

Future Perfect Tense 

Singular Plural 

1. I shall have been 1. We shall have been 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. You will have been 

3. He will have been 3. They will have been 

Past Future Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. I \ shou J , d } have been 1. We -j *™" \ have been 

( would ) ( would ) 

2. Thou \ shou 1 1 , ds * I have been 2. You \ shou J d [ have been 

/ wouldst ) ( would ) 

3. He \ shou 1 1 . d 1 have been 3. They \ shou , ld I have been 
J ( would ) ( would ) 





THE VERB 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 




Present 


; Tense 


Singular 




Plural 


i. (If) I be 




1. (If) we be 


2. (If) thou be 




2. (If) you be 


3. (If) he be 




3. (If) they be 




Past 


Tense 


Singular 




Plural 


x. (If) I were 




1. (If) we were 


2. (If) thou wert 




2. (If) you were 


3. (If) he were 




3. (If) they were 



177 



Present Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. (If) I have been 1. (If) we have been 

2. (If) thou have been 2. (If) you have been 

3. (If) he have been 3. (If) they have been 

Past Perfect Tense 
Singular Plural 

1. (If) I had been 1. (If) we had been 

2. (If) thou hadst been 2. (If) you had been 

3. (If) he had been 3. (If) they had been 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 
Singular Plural 

Be (thou) Be (you or ye) 





INFINITIVES 






To be 


PARTICIPLES 


To have 


been 


Being 


Been 
GERUNDS 


Having 


been 


Being 




Having 


been 



138. The verb to be is used as an auxiliary verb 
( 1 ) with the past participle of a transitive verb 
to make the passive voice; (2) with the present 
participle of any verb to make the progressive 



178 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

form, which represents an action as continuing or 
progressing: as, 

(i) The buoy of the Inchcape Rock was seen. (Pas- 
sive voice.) 

(2) Harry, our King, is hunting. (Progressive form.) 

139. When not used with the participle of an- 
other verb, the verb to be is a principal verb used 
(1) to express existence; (2) as a linking verb 
(122) connecting the subject with a predicate 
nominative or a predicate adjective: as, 

(1) There was a jolly miller. 

(2) Beauty is truth. 

Exercise 28. In the following sentences tell 
whether the verb to be is used as an auxiliary verb 
or as a principal verb. 

1. The oaks are budding. 

2. These little hands are folded tight. 

3. The moonlight is a gentle thing. 

4. You are sleeping too long. 

5. I was stung by a scorpion. 

6. Lord Ronald is heir of all your lands. 

7. Proud Maisie is in the wood. 

8. His house was known to all the vagrant train. 

9. The cattle are grazing. 

10. There are twelve months throughout the year. 

11. He is stronger than the storm. 

12. In that town a dog was found. 

13. There are flowers enough in the summer time. 

14. The bare boughs are sighing, the pale flowers are 
dying. 

15. His heart was kind and soft. 



THE VERB 179 

140. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO LOVE 

In the Active Voice, the Passive Voice, and the Progressive 

Form 

(Given, wherever possible, in the third person. For forms of 
verbals, see 153, 155, 156.) 



INDICATIVE MOOD 



Active 
He loves 
He loved 
He will love 
He would love 



Progressive 

He is loving 

He was loving 

He will be loving 

He would be loving 



Passive 
Present Tense 
He is loved 
Past Tense 
He was loved 

Future Tense 
He will be loved 

Past Future Tense 

He would be loved 

Present Perfect Tense 

He has loved He has been loved He has been loving 

Past Perfect Tense 

He had been loved He had been loving 

Future Perfect Tense 

He will have been He will have been 

loved loving 

Past Future Perfect Tense 

tt ( should ) have u \ should f , „ ( should ( , 

He i , ■ c 1 a He \ , , >• have He i , , > b( 

( would ) loved ( would I 1 . ( would i , 



He had loved 

He will have 
loved 



) loving 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

Present Tense 
(If) he love (If) he be loved (If) he be loving 

Past Tense 
(If) he loved (If) he were loved (If) he were loving 



180 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Present Perfect Tense 
(If) he have (If) he have been loved (If) he have been 

loved loving 

Past Perfect Tense 
(If) he had (If) he had been loved (If) he had been 

loved loving 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 
Love Be loved Be loving 

Exercise 29. Change the verbs in the follow- 
ing sentences from the present tense to the past. 

Example : The outlaw flees to the forest. The outlaw 
fled to the forest. 

1. The chief of that tribe slays all his enemies. 

2. He chooses a suitable reward. 

3. The judge chides the culprits for their misdeeds. 

4. Volumnia beseeches Coriolanus to spare Rome. 

5. She pleads with her son, and not in vain. 

6. The Black Knight smites his opponent. 

7. She treads an accustomed path. 

8. His eyes overflow with tears, and he bursts into 
a fit of sobbing. 

9. The dog never forsakes his master. 

10. He speeds away on his bicycle. 

11. He dives from the bridge and swims to the farther 
shore. 

12. He eats and drinks heartily. 

13. The bell rings at noon. 

14. He rends the air with his cries. 

15. They lead the blind man to the dwelling which 
he seeks. 

16. He forbears to strike a fallen foe. 



THE VERB 181 

17. The conscientious workman strives to do his best 
for his employer. 

18. When they tell him such an unpleasant truth, they 
hurt his feelings. 

19. Everything goes wrong as soon as I begin to grow 
careless. 

20. That tall boy easily beats all his competitors. 

Exercise 30. Give the past participle of each 
of the verbs in the preceding exercise. 

141. The verb do with its past tense did is 
used as an auxiliary verb in the present and past 
tenses of the indicative to make ( 1 ) the emphatic 
form, (2) the interrogative form, and (3) the 
negative form (with wo/). 

1. Thou didst delight my ear. 

2. Do you hear the children weeping? 

3. We did not hear the signal. 

142. The verbs can {could), ought, and must 
are used as principal verbs followed by the in- 
finitive without to (154). May {might) , should, 
and would, are sometimes principal verbs and 
sometimes auxiliaries. 

1. You may retire. (Principal verb.) 

2. Be silent that you may hear. (Auxiliary, used to 
show subjunctive of purpose.) 

143. Shall and will, the auxiliaries of the fu- 
ture tense, are used to express ( 1 ) future state 
or action; (2) a promise or the determination of 
the speaker. To express future state or action, 



182 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

shall is used in the first person, and will in the 
second and third persons. To express a promise 
or the determination of the speaker, will is used 
in the first person, and shall in the second and 
third persons. 

(i) I shall regret your going. (Future action.) 
You will forget the rule. (Future action.) 
He will succeed in the end. (Future action.) 
(2) I will not sleep under the roof of a traitor. 
(Determination on the part of the speaker.) 
You shall be duly rewarded for your services to 

our cause. (A promise.) 
He shall never clasp my hand again. (Deter- 
mination on the part of the speaker.) 

Exercise 31. In the following sentences choose 
between "shall" and "will" and give your 
reasons. 

1. I (will) (shall) not listen to tale-bearers. 

2. I am sure that I (will) (shall) not be misunder- 
stood. 

3. They are so close upon our heels that we (will) 
(shall) be caught. 

4. Should he persevere, he (will) (shall) succeed. 

5. The pen (will) (shall) supersede the sword, 
And Right, not Might, (will) (shall) be the lord, 

In the good time coming. 

6. He (will) (shall) neither come himself, nor al- 
low anyone else to come. 

7. I (will) (shall) be glad to read the book, if you 
(will) (shall) allow me. 



THE VERB 183 

8. The injury is not serious, and the patient (will) 
(shall) recover. 

9. I (will) (shall) be greatly obliged to you, if you 
can accommodate me. 

10. I (will) (shall) be obliged to leave school at the 
end of this term. 

Exercise 32. Use the correct form of the fu- 
ture in the places where the verbs are enclosed in 
parentheses. Express nothing but future time. 

1. I hope that we (be) in time to hear the speech. 

2. I don't know how we (make) our way through 
the crowd. 

3. A wise man (choose) the lesser of two evils. 

4. If such a law is passed, the country (suffer) for it. 

5. I hope that when I return, I (find) you in a more 
cheerful frame of mind. 

6. " I (drown) ; nobody (save) me! " cried the man 
who could not swim. 

7. I am sure that he (oblige) you. 

8. I regret that I (be) unable to attend the meet- 
ing. 

9. I (be) very glad to make your friend's acquaint- 
ance. 

10. A bad workman (complain) of his tools. 

144. In asking questions in the first person 
shall is almost invariably used. In the second and 
third persons the use of shall or will depends upon 
the answer expected: as, 

Will you lend me that book? (I will.) 
Shall you have time enough? (I shall.) 



184 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 33. Fill the blanks in the following 
questions with shall or will and give the reasons 
for your choice. 

1. you take a walk with me? 

2. I not take mine ease in mine inn? 

3. When we three meet again? 

4. What he do with it? 

5. we have an entertainment on Washings 

ton's birthday? 

6. you not forgive me? 

7. not a dog have his day? 

8. we get ready to welcome our guest? 

9. you not speak to me? 

10. What we bring as a gift to the King? 

11. Which way I go? 

. 12. Who join us in our sport? 

13. I, wasting in despair, 

Die because a woman's fair? 

14. What we say of our hero lying dead? 

15. he be lord, and I a slave? 

145. Care should be taken to avoid mistakes 
in the use of the present perfect and past tenses. 
The present perfect represents an action as com- 
pleted in a time which is thought of as part of the 
present. The past tense represents an action as 
taking place in a time that is thought of as wholly 
past. 

I have seen him frequently this week. 

I saw him frequently last week. 

Exercise 34. Fill the blanks in the following 
sentences with was or has been according to 



THE VERB 185 

whether the past tense or the present perfect is 
required. 

i. The Panama Canal begun by France. 

2. Canada an English colony ever since the 

conclusion of the French and Indian War. 

3. It said that every country has the gov- 
ernment it deserves. 

4. It said by Solon that no man ought to be 

called happy until his death. 

5. The South Pole discovered by Amundsen. 

6. France a republic since 1870. 

7. America called the land of opportunity. 

8. Shakespeare called the Swan of Avon by 

Ben Jonson. 

9. The present King of Norway formerly 

Prince Charles of Denmark. 

10. Henry Clay known as the Great Pacifi- 
cator. 

11. "Tom Sawyer" a popular book for a 

great many years. 

12. The house where Longfellow born is in 

Portland. 

13. Texas once a part of Mexico. 

14. " The Sketch Book " written nearly a cen- 
tury ago. 

15. The Suez Canal navigable for more than 

a generation. 

16. This house occupied by the present tenants 

for twenty years. 

17. The chauffeur speeding when the acci- 
dent occurred. 



186 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

1 8. Turkey first called "The Sick Man of 

Europe " by the Emperor Nicholas of Russia. 

19. Turkey called "The Sick Man of Eu- 
rope " for more than fifty years. 

20. Louisiana bought during Jefferson's ad- 
ministration. 

146. The subjunctive mood is often intro- 
duced by if, though, that, lest, or unless. It is 
sometimes used to express (1) a condition which 
is untrue or uncertain; (2) a wish; (3) a purpose. 

(1) If the weather were fine, I would go out. 

(2) I wish the weather were fine. 

(3) See that he do not die. 

147. Subjunctive verb phrases with may and 
might are often used to express purpose. Sub- 
junctive verb phrases with should and would are 
often used in conditional sentences. 

Wear rich garments so that our feast may be honored. 
If I should succeed, my friends would rejoice. 

148. When if is omitted in a clause of condi- 
tion, the verb or part of the verb is placed before 
the subject: as, 

Were I my master, I would set you free. 
Had I but known it, I would not now be here. 

149. When a condition is regarded as true, 
the verb takes the indicative mood. When a 
condition is regarded as untrue (contrary to fact) 
the verb takes the subjunctive mood, using the 



THE VERB 187 

past tense to denote present time and the past 
perfect tense to denote past time. 

Indicative. If I said that, I was mistaken. 

Subjunctive {present time). If I were you, I would 
act at once. 

Subjunctive {past time). Had the soldiers stood their 
ground, the day would have been ours. 

150. The form of the present subjunctive is 
seldom used except in poetry. The form were 
in the past subjunctive is always used by careful 
writers and speakers to express conditions which 
are untrue (contrary to fact). 

Exercise 35. In the following sentences fill the 
blanks with was {indicative) or were (subjunc- 
tive) and give the reason for your choice in each 
case. 

i. If I Brutus now, and he Cassius, 

He should not humor me. 

2. I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

3. If he there, I did not see him. 

4. If Washington living now, he would be 

astonished at the immensity of our country. 

5. If the verdict in accordance with the evi- 
dence, it was legally justifiable. 

6. I wish I where Helen lies. 

7. If I king, I would rule justly. 

8. Even if the fact as stated, it should not 

have been presented to the court. 

9. If it so, it was a grievous fault. 

10. I wish that it — possible for me to help you. 



188 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

151. The changes made in the form of a verb 
to show agreement with the subject are called the 
person and number of the verb (128). 

The following special cases of agreement must 
be carefully studied: 

(a) A collective noun (87) takes (1) a verb 
in the singular when the group is considered as a 
whole, but (2) a verb in the plural when the 
individuals in the group are thought of separately: 
as, 

( 1 ) The infantry was ordered to march. 

(2) The Prussian infantry wear curious helmets. 

(b) Two nouns in the singular connected by 
and, but denoting a single person or thing, take a 
verb in the singular: as, ' 

Bread and cheese is wholesome food. 

(c) Two nouns in the singular connected by 
either — or, or neither — nor, require a verb in the 
singular: as, 

Neither his son nor his daughter resembles him. 

(d) Nouns in the singular connected by and, 
and modified by each or every, require a verb 
in the singular: as, 

Each boy and each girl has a duty to perform. 
Every leaf and every blossom zuas shining in the sun- 
light. 

(e) A subject in the singular modified by a 
phrase containing a plural noun requires a verb in 
the singular : as, 

The general with a hundred of his soldiers was slain. 



THE VERB 189 

(/) A plural title naming a subject in the sin- 
gular requires a singular verb : as, 

Chaucer's " Canterbury Tales " is a famous poem. 

Exercise 36. Fill the blanks in the following 
sentences with was or were and explain the reason 
for your choice. 

i. The majority of the class called upon to 

recite. 

2. The number of failures very great. 

3. " Gulliver's Travels " written by Swift. 

4. Two tickets of admission given to every 

graduate. 

5. Every brook and every pool frozen. 

6. Not one of my books on the shelf when 

I looked there. 

7. A father with his two sons killed in the 

runaway accident. 

8. Either the president or the secretary of the club 
to blame. 

9. Neither of the books mine. 

10. Each town and each village asked to con- 
tribute to the celebration. 

11. The fleet ordered to sail. 

12. The peasantry heavily taxed. 

13. Neither Longfellow nor Whittier in- 
cluded in the list of poets. 

14. The bread and butter — ■ thankfully received 

by the hungry lad. 

15. The jury not unanimous in their verdict 

for acquittal. 



190 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

152. Verbals or non-modal forms are parts 
of verbs which express action, state or condition, 
but which cannot be used to form complete state- 
ments. 

There are three kinds of verbals : ( i ) infini- 
tives; (2) participles; (3) gerunds or verbal 
nouns. 

153. The forms* of the infinitive are as fol- 
lows: 

Active Passive 

Present — to see to be seen 

Past — to have seen to have been seen 

The infinitive may be used as (1) a noun, (2) 
an adjective, (3) an adverb, (4) the equivalent 
of a predicate verb in certain phrases (no). 

(1) To reign is his ambition. (Noun.) 

(2) I have the right to speak. (Adjective.) 

(3) I am ready to listen. (Adverb.) 

(4) I know him to be a trustworthy person. (Equiv- 
alent of predicate verb.) 

154. The verbs can, may, and must are regu- 
larly followed by the infinitive without to. After 
the verbs let, bid, make, hear, see, feel, and the 
verbs need and dare in the interrogative and nega- 
tive forms the to of the infinitive is almost always 

*A different classification of the forms of the infinitive may 
be made as follows: 

Active Passive 

Present — to see to be seen 

Perfect — to have seen to have been seen 



THE VERB 191 

omitted. After can, may, must, dare, and need 
the infinitive is a direct object. 

Exercise 37. In the following sentences find 
the infinitives, and tell what form each has. 

i. It remains to be seen whether the theory can be 
put into practice. 

2. To have suffered helps one to sympathize with 
suffering. 

3. Let dogs delight to bark and bite. 

4. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. 

5. I must hasten to my w r ork. 

6. You need not have been so hasty. 

7. To be taught by Dr. Arnold was a great privilege. 

8. I cannot sing the old songs. 

9. I dare not refuse his request. 

10. Shakespeare is known to have rewritten many old 
plays. 

11. The Emperor heard the nightingale sing. 

12. Part of " Henry VIII " is believed to have been 
written by Fletcher. 

13. The king made his enemy sue for pardon. 

14. The stranger declared that he could hear the grass 
grow. 

15. It is no disgrace to be defeated in a worthy cause. 

16. Then, if ever, was the time for Henry's dream to 
be accomplished. 

17. Each generation has its work to do. 

18. The fish has the stream to help him, and not an 
inch of line can be spared. 

19. What is to be done? 

20. To be chosen Queen of Beauty was a coveted 
honor. 



192 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

155. The forms* of the participle are as fol- 
lows: 

Active Passive 

Preseut-^sedng being seen 

Past — having seen -J . . . , , ' . 

i having been seen {phrasal past) 

The participle is always used as an adjective 
modifier of some noun or pronoun: as, 

Out came the children singing. 

I saw him running down the street. 

Exercise 38. In the following sentences find 
the participles and tell what noun or pronoun each, 
modifies. 

1. I found the Weser rolling o'er me. 

2. In great distress Goldsmith wrote to Johnson, 
begging him to come to his aid. 

3. He lay thinking and tossing on his bed until he 
was weary. 

4. Having amassed a fortune, Shakespeare left Lon- 
don for Stratford. 

5. Away to the field it went blustering and hum- 
ming. 

6. Having been received graciously by the Dauphin, 
Joan of Arc went on to prophesy victory. 

*A different classification of the forms of the participle may 
be made as follows: 

Active Passive 

Present — seeing being seen 

Past seen 

Perfect — having seen having been seen 



THE VERB 193 

7. Driven from the society of the peacocks, the jack- 
daw sought the companionship of his own kind. 

8. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, 
Onward through life he goes. 

9. Being informed of the condition, he took measures 
to remedy it. 

10. The swimmer persevered, buffeted by the waves, 
but buoyed up by the hope of reaching the shore. 

156. The forms* of the gerund or verbal 
noun are as follows: 

Active Passive 

Present — seeing being seen 

Past — having seen having been seen 

The gerund is used as a noun and may be 
modified by a noun in the genitive case, or a pos- 
sessive adjective, as well as by an adverbial modi- 
fier. The modifiers of the infinitive and participle 
are always adverbial. 

All his life Dickens had loved acting. 

There is little hope of his finding the true path. 

Exercise 39. In the following sentences find 
the gerunds and tell what form each has. 

1. Be still, sad heart! and cease repining. 

2. After remaining about three years at College, 
Johnson left without taking a degree. 

*A different classification of the forms of the gerund may be 
made as follows: 

Active Passive 

Present — seeing being seen 

Perfect — having seen having been seen 



194 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

3. He deserves great credit for having done so well. 

4. Upon being told of the Queen's death, the Pre- 
tender's supporters hastened to his side. 

5. She could read any English book without much 
spelling, but for pickling, preserving, and cooking, none 
could excel her. 

6. His having been educated in a good school made 
his failure all the more surprising. 

7. After having considered the situation carefully, I 
decided upon refusing the offer. 

8. There is a story that after getting into trouble 
once more for stealing game, he left Stratford hastily, 
and went to London. 

9. Being convinced of one's ignorance is often the 
first step towards acquiring knowledge. 

10. There can be little doubt of the play's being re- 
ceived with great interest. 

157. The parsing of a verb should tell the fol- 
lowing points: (1) Conjugation: whether regular 
or irregular; (2) Class: whether transitive or in- 
transitive; (3) Voice; (4) Mood; (5) Tense; 
(6) Agreement with the subject in person and 
number. 

Example: I come to bury Caesar. 

Come is an irregular intransitive verb, no voice, indica- 
tive mood, present tense. It agrees with its subject / in 
first person and singular number. 

Exercise 40. Parse the verbs in the following 
sentences. 



THE VERB 195 

i. The vessel strikes with a shivering shock. 

2. Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard! 

3. If I had known the truth, I would have acted 
differently. 

4. I will not go to such a dreary region. 

5. He has been made a peer of the realm. 

6. " The Canterbury Tales " was written by 
Chaucer. 

7. Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition. 

8. Did ye not hear it? 

9. Has anyone heard the news? 

10. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE PRONOUN 

158. A pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun. Pronouns may be divided into six classes: 
(i) personal, (2) possessive, (3) relative, (4) in- 
terrogative, (5) demonstrative, and (6) indefinite. 

159. Personal pronouns are pronouns that 
have forms to show whether they represent (1) 
the speaker; (2) the person spoken to; (3) the 
person spoken of. These forms are known as the 
pronouns of the first person, of the second person, 
and of the third person, and are as follows: 

FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON 







Singular Number 








Poetic Common 








Form Form 


Mas. Fern. Neu. 


Norn. 


I 


thou you 


he she it 


Ace. 


me 


thee you 


him her it 


Dat. 


me 


thee you 
Plural Number 


him her it 
All genders 


Nom. 


we 


ye you 


they 


Ace. 


us 


you you 


them 


Dat. 


us 


you you 


them 


160. 


The 1 


place of the genit 


ive forms of the 



personal pronouns is taken by the possessive pro- 

196 



THE PRONOUN 197 

nouns and possessive adjectives ( 184) , which have 
distinct forms corresponding to the pronouns of 
the first, second, and third persons. 

Exercise 41. In the following sentences find 
the personal pronouns, and tell the person, num- 
ber, and case of each. 

1. As Prince James slept, he dreamed that a sudden 
light shone into his prison. 

2. A voice cried, " I bring thee comfort and heal- 
ing." 

3. " Have pity on me and give me back my dead 
son," said Priam to Achilles. 

4. Let us be friends. 

5. If you prick us, do we not bleed? 

6. I am he whom thou knowest. 

7. Both thou and I 
Must quickly die. 

8. Vainly the fowler's eye 

Might mark thy distant flight to do thee wrong. 

9. I am going to tell you my story in a few words. 
10. Now let us sing, long live the King, 

And Gilpin, long live he! 

And when he next doth ride abroad, 

May I be there to see! 

161. The possessive pronouns, mine, ours, 
thine, yours, his, hers, theirs, and whose, are used 
in modern English to take the place of a noun with 
a possessive modifier. They are used (1) in the 
nominative case as the subject or the predicate 
nominative; (2) in the accusative case with a 



198 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

preposition, or as the object of a verb, arid (3) 
in the dative case as the indirect object. 

1. Mine is the hardest task of all. (My task.) 

2. My place is next to hers. (Her place.) 

3. Shall we give your statesmen praise and ours the 
blame? (Our statesmen.) 

162. The personal pronouns ending in self or 
selves have the following forms for the first, sec- 
ond, and third persons : 

Singular Plural 

First Person. myself ourselves 

Second Person. \ * .. yourselves 

( yourself 

J himself 
herself themselves 

itself 

163. When used as an emphasizing or in- 
tensive pronoun, the personal pronoun is in apposi- 
tion with a noun or pronoun in the nominative, 
accusative, or dative case; when used as a reflexive 
pronoun, it is in the accusative or the dative case 
and refers back to the subject. 

Intensive Reflexive 

I myself did it. He has hurt himself. 

We saw the Queen herself. I gave myself a wound. 

I gave the King himself my sword. 

Exercise 42. In the following sentences tell 
which pronouns ending in self or selves are used 
intensively and which are used reflexively. 



THE PRONOUN 199 

1. We can make ourselves uncomfortable to any ex- 
tent by being Impatient. 

2. Hope herself ceases to be happiness, when impa- 
tience companions her. 

3. The hedgehogs rolled themselves over and over. 

4. He himself has said it. 

5. At first we care only for the story itself. 

6. We ourselves grow and change just as a nation. 

7. The King himself has followed her. 

8. He pinched himself to see whether he was awake 
or asleep. 

9. You all have the right to call yourselves little 
housewives, when you sew neatly. 

10. You yourself gave us permission to attend. 

164. The relative pronouns are who, which, 
that, and what. Who, which, and that relate to 
a preceding noun or pronoun called the antecedent, 
and join the antecedent to a dependent clause 
which modifies the antecedent. 



165. 


Who, 


which, and that are declined as f 


lows: 




Singular and Plural 


Nom. 


who 


which that 


Ace. 


whom 


which that 


Dat. 


whom 


which that 



166. The person, number, and gender of a 
relative pronoun are the same as the person, num- 
ber, and gender of the antecedent. Its case de- 
pends upon the use of the relative pronoun in its 



200 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

own clause, as subject, object, or predicate nomina- 
tive. To show possession, the relative adjective 
whose (185) is used. 

167. Who is used to refer to persons. That 
may be used to refer to persons, to the lower 
animals, and to things without life. Which is 
used to refer to animals and to things without 
life, but never to persons. 

Exercise 43. In the following sentences fill 
the blanks with who, whom, which, or whose, and 
name the antecedent in each case. 

1. What shall we give the hero we honor? 

2. They also serve only stand and wait. 

3. Experience is the lamp by our feet are 

guided. 

4. No man can produce great things is not 

thoroughly sincere in dealing with himself. 

5. Woe to the land people worship Mam- 
mon! 

6. The soldier I spoke to had fought in the 

Spanish-American War. 

7. This is the story of a whistle for I paid 

dearly. 

8. Those — we call foolish have sometimes the 

truest wisdom. 

9. The boy I expect to win the game is the 

best player in the school. 

10. The candidate you said would probably 

be elected was defeated after all. 

11. The look with they looked on me 

Had never passed away. 



THE PRONOUN 201 

12. My never-failing friends are they, 
With I converse day by daj r . 

13. I saw the statesman , they said, had saved 

his party from defeat. 

14. He is the freeman the truth makes free. 

15. The Shah of Persia, visit to England 

furnished material for so many amusing anecdotes, was 
named Nasr-Eddin. 

168. The clause (85) introduced by a relative 
pronoun is said to be ( 1 ) essential, when it is neces- 
sary to complete the thought of the principal prop- 
osition; (2) non-essential, when it can be omitted 
without leaving the thought of the principal prop- 
osition incomplete. The same group of words 
may be used as an essential clause in one sentence 
and as a non-essential clause in another: as, 

( 1 ) A region which attracts thousands of tourists 
every year is the Yosemite Valley. (Essential) 

(2) Switzerland is famous for her scenery, which at- 
tracts thousands of tourists every year. (Non-essential) 

The relative pronoun in the non-essential clause 
is often equivalent to and with some form of the 
personal pronoun of the third person: 

The oldest republic in Europe is Switzerland, which 
(and it) won its independence in 1296. 

The general was accosted by a messenger, who (and 
he) delivered dispatches from headquarters. 

169. The non-essential relative clause is usu- 
ally introduced by the pronouns who or which, and 



202 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

is separated from the principal proposition by a 
comma (17). The essential relative clause is 
often introduced by that, and is not cut off by a 
comma. That is usually preferred to who or 
which ( 1 ) after the verb to be used with the pro- 
noun it as subject; (2) after an adjective in the 
superlative degree (187); (3) after two ante- 
cedents, when one refers to persons and the other 
to animals, or things without life: as, 

(1) The dog it was that died. 

(2) This is the prettiest low-born lass that ever trod 
greensward. 

(3) The poor man and his dog that had taken refuge 
in the stable perished in the flames. 

Exercise 44. Fill the blanks in the following 
sentences with some form of who, which, or that, 
and give the reason for your choice. 

1. It was your essay won the prize. 

2. These are the finest chrysanthemums I 

have ever seen. 

3. The French, are the thriftiest nation in 

Europe, are also the most artistic. 

4. Portia gave Bassanio a ring, she told 

him never to part with. 

5. The human beings and wild beasts were 

sacrificed in the gladiatorial shows numbered thousands 
upon thousands. 

6. The dwarf pointed to his heavy burden, 

he seemed to wish Rip to take from him. 

7. The last words Goethe uttered were, 

" More light." 



THE PRONOUN 203 

8. It was I did it. 

9. The famous " Mona Lisa," was stolen 

from the Louvre gallery in 191 1, was painted by Da 
Vinci. 

10. This is the best advice I can give you. 

Exercise 45. Combine each of the following 
pairs of sentences into a single sentence, using a 
relative pronoun or a relative adjective as con- 
nective. 

Example: Robert Browning wrote " The Pied Piper " 
for a little boy. The little boy was the 
son of Macready, the actor. 

Combined: Robert Browning wrote " The Pied Piper " 
for a little boy, who w T as the son of 
Macready, the actor ; (or), The little boy 
for whom Robert Browning wrote " The 
Pied Piper " was the son of Macready, 
the actor. 

1. The testimony was given by an eye-witness. 
Everyone believed his story. 

2. Longfellow died in 1882. He was one of our 
greatest poets. 

3. Where is the book? You promised to lend it to 
me. 

4. Lord Shaftesbury was a great philanthropist. 
Everyone admired him. 

5. A boy was standing in the doorway. His face 
was covered with freckles. 

6. He can govern himself. He will soon be able to 
to govern others. 

7. Mark Twain is a very amusing writer. I have 
found much entertainment in his books. 



204 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

8. I think you will be pleased with the gift. Your 
cousin sent it to you. 

9. Edison is a great scientist. We are indebted to 
him for many convenient appliances. 

10. Nature is but the name for an effect. Its cause 
is God. 

170. Relative pronouns in the accusative case 
are often omitted when they can be readily sup- 
plied: as, 

This is the path my childhood knew. ( That my child- 
hood knew.) 

Here shall you find the friend you have wished for. 
{For whom you have wished.) 

Exercise 46. Tell what relative pronoun is 
omitted in each of the following sentences and ex- 
plain its case. 

1. I never shall forget the words he uttered. 

2. Weary and long is the way she has taken. 

3. Among the younger writers Dryden took the 
place Ben Jonson used to hold. 

4. We can take up the work our fathers left undone. 

5. Milton saw all he had worked for destroyed at 
one blow. 

6. 'Twas a delicate thread it had to tread. 

7. My gentle lad, what is't you read? 

8. That is just the walk we have been taking. 

9. Can this be the place we have sought for with 
so much effort? 

10. The very bed the bankrupt sleeps in is not his 
own. 



THE PRONOUN 205 

171. What 'is sometimes used as a relative pro- 
noun equivalent to that which. That is then 
parsed as an adjective pronoun and is the ante- 
cedent of which. 

No man can lose what (that which) he never had. 

172. As and hut are sometimes relative pro- 
nouns. As is used as a relative pronoun after 
same and such, and hut is sometimes used as a 
relative pronoun equivalent to that — not. 

I never saw such fields as these. 

This paper is the same as mine. 

There is not a wife in the west country 
But has heard of the well of St. Keyne. 

173. The compound relative pronouns, formed 
by adding ever or soever to who, which, and what, 
are often called indefinite relative pronouns, and 
are used to introduce substantive clauses (222). 

Who, which, and what are also sometimes used 
to introduce substantive clauses : as, 

Who (whoever) runs, may read. 
What (whatever) is mine is thine. 

174. Pronouns that are used to ask questions 
are interrogative pronouns. The interrogative 
pronouns are who? which? what? Who is used 
to refer to persons; which to persons or to things; 
what refers to things only. 

175. Questions are either (1) direct or (2) 
indirect. A direct question gives the exact words 



206 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

of the speaker. An indirect question gives the 
thought of the speaker with some change in the 
words or in the order of words. An indirect 
question depends on a verb of asking, demanding, 
etc. 

(i) Which shall it be? (Direct.) 
(2) And then he asked what they had done. (In- 
direct.) 

176. The interrogative pronouns who and 
which are declined like the relative pronouns 
(165). What has the same form for the 
nominative and accusative cases and has no dative 
form. 

Exercise 47. In each of the following sen- 
tences fill the blanks with who or whom, and give 
the reason for your choice. 

1. are you waiting to see? 

2. do you suppose will win the game? 

3. I must try to find out it was. 

4 # do you take me to be? 

5. do you think I saw to-day? 

6. Were you told was placed in charge of 

the class? 

7. Were you told they placed in charge of 

the class? 

g. did you say was waiting to see me? 

9. I knew it was all the time. 

10. do you think inquired after you? 

11. We could not tell the portrait resembled. 

12. can this present have come from? 



THE PRONOUN 207 

13. I had no idea would be the successful 

candidate. 

14. do you think it is? 

15. do you believe to be most likely to win? 

177. The terms demonstrative and indefinite 
are applied to words which may be used (1) as 
pronouns, (2) as adjectives. The chief demon- 
strative pronouns are : this, that, these, those, 
former, latter. The chief indefinite pronouns are : 
all, any, each, either, neither, much, many, other, 
another, several, few, some, none. 

Exercise 48. In the following sentences find 
the demonstrative and the indefinite pronouns. 

1. This is the story of a thoughtless boy. 

2. As the ringing of the bell ceased, all was still. 

3. " These are my jewels!" said Cornelia. 

4. Some always pretended to doubt Rip's story: 

5. Many are called, but few T are chosen. 

6. There were several of the guests still to be heard 
from. 

7. None but the brave deserves the fair. 

8. Of two evils, choose neither. 

9. The former of the two speakers was listened to 
more patiently than was the latter. 

10. Each knew that his turn was bound to come. 

178. To parse a pronoun, tell (1) its class; 

(2) its antecedent (if the pronoun is relative) ; 

(3) its person; (4) its number; (5) its gender; 
(6) its case; (7) its syntax or construction: use 
in the sentence. 



208 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Example: Experience is the lamp by which our feet 
are guided. 

Which is a relative pronoun, in the third person, 
singular number, neuter gender, agreeing with its ante- 
cedent, experience; and in the accusative case, used with 
the preposition by. 

Exercise 49. Parse the pronouns in Exercise 
41. 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE ADJECTIVE 

179. An adjective is a word used to modify 
a noun, a pronoun, or a group of words doing 
the same work as a noun: as, 

(i) King Francis was a hearty king. 

(2) She is beautiful indeed. 

(3) To satisfy everyone is difficult. 

180. Adjectives may be divided into two 
classes: (1) descriptive adjectives, and (2) limit- 
ing adjectives. Descriptive adjectives express a 
quality of the object described. Limiting ad- 
jectives point out something, or denote number or 
quantity: as, 

(1) It was a merry tale. (Descriptive.) 

(2) Thirty days hath September. (Limiting.) 

181. Proper adjectives, or adjectives which 
are formed from proper nouns, and participial ad- 
jectives, which are participles (155). used as ad- 
jectives, may be classed as descriptive adjectives. 

( 1 ) From the throng there springs an Indian maid. 
(Proper adjective.) 

(2) With ringing shouts the lads come on. (Par- 
ticipial adjective.) 

209 



210 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 50. Find the descriptive adjectives in 
the following sentences. 

1. Tasso was the eldest of them all, and he was so 
good, so laborious, so cheerful, and so gentle, that all 
the younger children adored him. 

2. She was a charming and lovely creature, only she 
had a sadly nervous manner. 

3. Shanklin used to be a little green, mossy village 
covered up in honeysuckle and hawthorn ; low, long 
houses, green too with ivy and creepers, hid themselves 
away in sweet-smelling old-fashioned gardens. 

4. It was a large barren room into which he rushed 
eagerly, and the bricks were bare and uneven. 

5. They were dressed in a quaint outlandish fashion; 
some wore short doublets, others jerkins, with long 
knives in their belts. 

182. Limiting adjectives include (1) demon- 
strative adjectives, (2) indefinite adjectives, (3) 
numeral adjectives, (4) interrogative adjectives, 
(5) relative adjectives, (6) possessive adjectives. 

183. Demonstrative and indefinite adjectives 
have the same forms as the pronouns of the same 
names (177). Numeral adjectives which express 
a definite number are called cardinals ; numeral 
adjectives which tell the order of things in a 
series are called ordinals. Which, what, and 
whose when used with nouns to ask questions are 
called interrogative limiting adjectives. Which 
and whose are relative adjectives when they refer 
to an antecedent and modify a noun in the sub- 



THE ADJECTIVE 



211 



ordinate clause. The definite article the and the 
indefinite articles a and an may be classed as lim- 
iting adjectives. 

184. The possessive adjectives are used to 
modify nouns and show ownership or possession. 
Their forms and their relation to the correspond- 
ing personal, relative, and possessive pronouns 
are shown in the following table: 

Personal Possessive Possessive 

Pronoun Adjective Pronoun 

Singular and Plural 



I, we 

thou, you 

he 

she >• they 


my, our 
thv, your 
his -\ 

her > their 
its J 


mine, ours 
thine, yours 
his ) 
hers [ theirs 


it ) 


— ) 


Interrogative 
Pronoun 


Possessive 
Adjective 


Possessive 
Pronoun 


who 
which 


Singular and Plural 
whose 
whose 


whose 
whose 


Relative 
Pronoun 


Possessive 
Adjective 


Possessive 
Pronoun 


who 
which 


Singular and Plural 
whose 
whose 







185. Table of Limiting Adjectives. 

Demonstrative Adjectives: this, that, these, those, for- 
mer, latter, yonder. 

Indefinite Adjectives: all, any, many, other, another, 
few, some, much, little, no, each, every, either, neither. 

Cardinal Numeral Adjectives: one, two, sixty, etc. 

Ordinal Numeral Adjectives: first, third, fifth, etc. 



212 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Interrogative Adjectives: which? what? whose? 

Relative Adjectives: which, whose. 

Possessive Adjectives: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, 
their, whose. 

Articles: a, an, the. 

Note — The possessive adjective whose may be either 
interrogative or relative. 

Exercise 51. In the following sentences find 

the limiting adjectives and tell to what class each 

belongs. 

1. Which way does the wind blow? 

2. On every occasion there was sure to be some en- 
tertainment of this sort. 

3. Neither prisoner could be prevailed upon to utter 
more than these few careless words. 

4. It was with some difficulty that he found his way. 

5. Tasso had drawn his number that morning, and 
he must go and be a conscript for three years. 

6. All those old ballads he knew by heart. 

7. There were not many visitors that June. 

8. What men are these? 

9. They paid my father two hundred florins. 

10. It was so much money, and he has many children. 

186. Most descriptive adjectives and the limit- 
ing adjectives few, many, much, and little have 
degrees of comparison, known as the positive 
degree, the comparative degree, and the super- 
lative degree. 

187. The positive degree expresses the simple 
quality. The comparative degree expresses a 
higher degree of the quality, and is used when 
two persons or things are compared. The super- 



THE ADJECTIVE 



213 



lative degree expresses the highest degree of the 
quality, and is used when more than two persons 
or things are compared. 

188. Adjectives of one syllable and some of 
two syllables form the comparative degree by add- 
ing er and the superlative degree by adding est 
to the positive; as, high, higher, highest. Most 
adjectives of two syllables and all of more than 
two syllables prefix the adverb more to the positive 
to form the comparative degree, and the adverb 
most to the positive to form the superlative de- 
gree : as, cheerful, more cheerful, most cheerful. 

189. The following adjectives are irregularly 
compared: 

Comparative 




near 



worse 



better 

less 

lesser 

farther 

nearer 



late 



old 



later 
latter 
older 
elder 

Note. — Further and furthest are 
adverb forth. 



Superlative 
worst 

best 

least 

farthest ' 

nearest | 

next | 

latest \ 

last j 

oldest | 

eldest j 
derived from 



the 



214 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 52. Change the adjectives in the fol- 
lowing sentences from the comparative degree to 
the superlative, and from the superlative degree 
to the comparative, making whatever other 
changes may he necessary for the grammar or 
the meaning. 

Example: Superlative. The best way to win friendship 
is to give it generously. 
Comparative. There is no better way to 
win friendship than to give it gener- 
ously. 

i. Of all the Mongolian nations, the Japanese are 
the readiest to adopt Western ideas. 

2. During the whole of the sixteenth century, Spain 
was the greatest power in Europe. 

3. The enrolment of students in Columbia Univer- 
sity is greater than that of any other college in the state. 

4. Gibraltar is the strongest fortress in the world. 

5. Longfellow was more popular than any other 
American poet of his day. 

6. Of the three enemies of mankind, age, poverty, 
and disease, the last is most to be dreaded. 

7. The construction of the Panama Canal is the 
most remarkable engineering achievement of our time. 

8. David Garrick is said to have been greater than 
any other English actor. 

9. Tragedy ranks higher than any other form of 
drama. 

10. Comedy is the most popular form of drama. 

190. Descriptive adjectives expressing quali- 
ties which are always the same in degree cannot 



THE ADJECTIVE 215 

be compared: as, round, square, chief, equal, eter- 
nal. 

Exercise 53. Tell which of the adjectives in 
Exercise $0 can be compared, and compare them. 

191. To parse an adjective, tell (i) its class; 
(2) its degree of comparison (if the adjective 
can be compared) ; (3) its syntax or construction: 
use in the sentence. 

Example: A fairer maid was never seen. 

Fairer is a descriptive adjective, in the comparative de- 
gree. It modifies the noun maid. 

Exercise 54. Parse the adjectives in Exercises 
50 and 5/. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE ADVERB 

192. An adverb (82) that is used merely to 
modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb is 
called a simple adverb. An adverb that modifies 
some word, and also connects the clause (85) of 
which it is a part with the rest of the sentence, 
may be called a relative adverb. An adverb that 
is used to ask a question is called an interrogative 
adverb. 

1. Merrily rang the bells. (Simple adverb.) 

2. Come tuhen you're looked for. (Relative adverb.) 

3. Why art thou silent? (Interrogative adverb.) 

Exercise 55. Tell whether the adverbs in the 
following sentences are simple, relative, or inter- 
rogative. 

1. He remembered too late, on his thorny green bed, 
Much that well may be thought cannot wisely be 

said. 

2. On the saddle he stood while the creature stood 
still. 

3. Oh, where does faithful Gelert roam? 

4. Onward in haste Llewellyn passed. 

5. And when he next doth ride abroad 
May I be there to see! 

216 



THE ADVERB 217 

6. Then, lightly tripping, he ran away. 

7. Mr. Winkle struck wildly against him, and with 
a loud crash they both fell heavily down. 

8. Just when Dickens began to write " Pickwick " 
he married, and soon we find him comfortably settled 
in a London house. 

9. Whence comes this array of horsemen gaily clad? 
10. How joyously the young sea-mew 

Lay dreaming on the waters blue ! 

193. According to their meaning, adverbs may 
be called adverbs of (1) time, (2) place, (3) 
degree, (4) manner, (5) cause. Examples of 
each class are as follows: 

(1) Time: how, then, when, ever, never, often, al- 
ways, daily, yearly, once, again, soon. 

(2) Place: here, there, where, above, below, up, 
down, in, out, hence, thence, away, far. 

(3) Manner: so, thus, well, ill, together, how, 
quickly, clearly, carefully. 

(4) Degree: so, as, very, more, most, much, little, 
almost, quite, too, enough, how. 

(5) Cause: wherefore, therefore, why. 

194. Certain combinations of words which are 
always used together may be called adverbial 
phrases (84) : as, at once, at last, at length, at 
best, at least, at hand, as yet, by far, from above, 
from below, by and by. 

195. Adverbs, like adjectives, may have three 
degrees of comparison (186). Adverbs of one 
syllable form their comparative and superla- 



218 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

tive by adding er and est to the positive. Most 
adverbs are compared by prefixing more and most 
to the positive; soon, sooner, soonest; quickly, 
more quickly, most quickly. 

196. The adverbs well, far, late, little, much, 
near, and ill are irregularly compared, like the 
corresponding adjectives (189). 

197. To parse an adverb tell ( 1 ) its class ac- 
cording to use and according to meaning; (2) 
its degree (if the adverb can be compared) ; (3) 
its construction or syntax: use in the sentence. 

Example: When Byron was ten years old, his aged 
grandfather died unexpectedly. 

When is a relative adverb of time. It modifies the 
verb was and connects the clause, When Byron was ten 
years old, with the principal proposition, his grandfather 
died unexpectedly. 

Unexpectedly is a simple adverb of manner. It is in the 
positive degree and modifies the verb died. 

Exercise 56. Parse the adverbs in Exercise 55. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE PREPOSITION 



198. A preposition is used to show the rela- 
tion of a noun, a pronoun, or a gerund (156) 
to some other word in the sentence. The noun, 
pronoun, or gerund depending upon the preposi- 
tion is called its object. 

The following are some of the words most 
commonly used as prepositions: 



about 


below 


from 


till 


above 


beneath 


in 


to 


across 


beside 


into 


towards 


after 


besides 


of 


under 


against 


between 


off 


underneath 


amid 


beyond 


on 


until 


among 


by 


over 


up 


around 


concerning 


round 


upon 


at 


down 


since 


with 


before 


during 


through 


within 


behind 


for 


throughout 


without 



But is a preposition when it has the meaning 
except. The prepositions to or unto are under- 
stood after like and near, when these words are 
used as adjectives or adverbs. 

219 



220 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

199. Some of the words in the list given above, 
such as above, below, before, behind, by, in, up, 
down, are ( i ) prepositions when they are used 
to show the relation between words; (2) adverbs 
when they are used alone to express place or time. 

(1) Come and sit by me. (Preposition.) 

(2) I saw three ships come sailing by. (Adverb.) 

Exercise 57. In the following sentences de- 
cide whether the italicized words are prepositions 
or adverbs, and give your reason in each case. 

1. The way into my parlor is up a winding stair. 

2. Up into the cherry tree 

Who should climb but little me? 

3. Down swept the chill wind from the mountain 
peak. 

4. Down the lane dashed Rover. 

5. Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. 

6. The wine is left behind! 

7. I wind about, and in and out. 

8. An hour they sat in council. 

9. I will return before noon. 

10. Have you ever been here before? 

200. . To parse a preposition ( 1 ) name the part 
of speech, and (2) tell between what words the 
preposition shows the relation. 

Example: From the deserts of burning sand we speed. 

From is a preposition and shows the relation between 
the noun deserts and the verb speed. 

Of is a preposition and shows the relation between the 
noun sand and the noun deserts. 



THE PREPOSITION 221 

Exercise 58. Parse the prepositions in the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

i. Over the river they beckon to me. 

2. Unto an evil counsellor close heart and ear and 
eye. 

3. During his stay at West Point Johnson's develop- 
ment was not all in one direction. 

4. Joy rises in me like a summer's morn. 

5. Some lie beneath the churchyard stones, 
And some before the Speaker. 

6. I ran towards the spot from which the sound 
seemed to come. 

7. There was room for everyone but him. 

8. After the rain comes the sunshine. 

9. Put money in thy purse. 

10. At last the people in a body 

To the Town Hall came flocking. 



CHAPTER XX 
THE CONJUNCTION 

201. Conjunctions are used to connect words, 
phrases (85), and clauses (86). Conjunctions 
may be divided into two kinds : co-ordinating con- 
junctions and subordinating conjunctions. 

202. Words, phrases, and clauses are in the 
same construction when they are in the same re- 
lation to some other part of the sentence. Co-or- 
dinating conjunctions are used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses which are in the same con- 
struction. The chief co-ordinating conjunctions 
are and, but, or, nor, and for. The co-ordinating 
conjunction and is sometimes preceded by both; 
or by either or whether; nor by neither. When 
thus used, the pairs both — and, either — or, 
whether — or, neither — nor, and not only — but also 
are called correlative conjunctions. 

203. Subordinating conjunctions are used to 
connect the dependent or subordinate clauses of 
complex sentences (217) with the principal propo- 
sition. The chief subordinating conjunctions are: 

222 



THE CONJUNCTION 223 

that, if, because, since, than, as, although, though, 
till, until, before, after. 

204. Certain groups of words which do the 
work of conjunctions, such as, in order that, as well 
as, as if, as though, etc., are called phrasal con- 
junctions. 

Exercise 59. Find the co-ordinating conjunc- 
tions in the following sentences and tell what 
words, phrases, or clauses they connect. 

1. He lifted up his voice and wept. 

2. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle that 
fits them all. 

3. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 

4. She hardly knew whether to laugh or to cry. 

5. Thunder can be made by bending a tea-tray or 
by rolling a heavy ball over a thin hollow surface. 

6. Sir Thomas More was not the first to write 
about a happy land where everyone lived in peace and 
where only justice reigned. 

7. The minstrel made his appeal to the ear with 
music and with song. 

8. A comedy is a play which shows the merry side of 
life and has a happy ending. 

9. Lincoln was not only a great statesman, but also 
a great master of English prose. 

10. Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide. 

205. To parse a conjunction tell (1) its class; 
(2) the words, phrases, or clauses that it connects. 



224 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Examples : The minstrel was infirm and old. 

And is a co-ordinating conjunction connecting the adjec- 
tives infirm and old. 

If you're waking, call me early. 

// is a subordinating conjunction connecting the depend- 
ent clause, // you re waking, with the principal proposi- 
tion, call me early. 

Exercise 60. Parse the conjunctions in Exer- 
cises $q and 68. 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE INTERJECTION 

206. An interjection is a word which expresses 
sudden or intense feeling. Interjections may be 
(i) exclamatory sounds: Ah! Oh! (2) various 
parts of speech: Hark! Hence! What! 

Exercise 61. Find the interjections in the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

1. Ah, poor man! Rip Van Winkle was his name. 

2. Why, where have you been these twenty long 
years? 

3. What! going to leave the castle at midnight? 

4. Hallo! where are you going? 

5. Bravo! that was a well-planted blow! 

6. Good lack ! how grim and ghastly looks her Grace ! 

7. There was a maid cried "Welladay!" 

8. Hey, the green ribbon that shone so fair! 

9. Good gracious! I have forgotten my purse! 

10. Dear me! I did not know the glass was so 
fragile ! 



225 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE PHRASE 

207. Phrases (84) may be classified in two 
ways: (1) according to their form or struc- 
ture; (2) according to their use in the sentence. 

208. According to their form, phrases may be 
( 1 ) prepositional ; ( 2 ) participial 5(3) infinitive ; 
(4) gerund. A prepositional phrase begins with 
a preposition; a participial phrase with a participle 
(155); an infinitive phrase with an infinitive 
(153) ; and a gerund phrase with a gerund (156). 

1. God fulfills himself in many ways. 

2. Knowing the truth, I could not wish him joy. 

3. To blow the pipe his lips he wrinkled. 

4. Riding unbroken colts was his delight. 

209. According to their use, phrases may be 
(1) adjectival; (2) adverbial; (3) substantive; 
(4) independent (216). Adjectival phrases do 
the work of an adjective, adverbial phrases of an 
adverb, and substantive phrases of a noun. 

(1) Samson was a man of might. (Adjectival.) 

(2) She pays him in his own coin. (Adverbial.) 

(3) They love to see the flaming forge. (Substantive.) 

(4) To be frank, he is a knave. (Independent.) 

226 



THE PHRASE 227 

210. Adjectival phrases are ( i ) prepositional, 
(2) participial, or (3) infinitive in form. 

( 1 ) The man in the moon came down too soon. 

(2) Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 

(3) There is a rich harvest to be reaped. 

Exercise 62. Tell whether the adjectival 
phrases are prepositional, participial, or infinitive 
in form, and name the word modified by each. 

1. Cowper readily accepted the task set him. 

2. The early inhabitants of Britain dug out caves 
to live in. 

3. Of all these stories the minstrels learned only the 
outline. 

4. Our savage ancestors sold their fellow-men, cap- 
tives taken in war. 

5. Of the garden and the fields and the brook Tenny- 
son kept a memory all his life. 

6. Having made his fellow-travelers' acquaintance, 
Chaucer begins a description of them. 

7. Raleigh set forth, bearing with him all his hopes. 

8. The fifteenth century was the age of discovery, 
and of all the world's first great sailors. 

9. Awakening from his sleep, Ccedmon remembered 
his dream. 

10. My fairest child, I have no song to give you. 

Exercise 63. In the following sentences sub- 
stitute participial phrases for the italicized ad- 
jectives. 



228 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Example: Italian marble is much admired for its 
beauty. 
Marble coming from Italy is much admired 
for its beauty. 

1. The witness answered the question after momen- 
tary hesitation. 

2. He is an experienced sailor. 

3. Andrew Johnson was a self-taught man. 

4. In some schools, instruction in business methods 
is a part of the course of study. 

5. Atlantic City is a popular seaside resort. 

6. Baseball is the national game. 

7. The Dryads in Greek stories were wood nymphs, 
the Oreads mountain nymphs, and the Naiads water 
nymphs. 

8. The traveler discerned the outlines of high moun- 
tains with snowy summits. 

9. The children had erected a snow image. 

10. " Waste not, want not," is a common proverb. 

11. The dress was made of expensive material. 

12. Launcelot Gobbo, in " The Merchant of Venice," 
is a ludicrous character. 

13. The forlorn prisoner seemed grateful for a few 
compassionate words. 

14. It is unmanly to strike a defenseless foe. 

15. The Panama Canal is a significant factor in com- 
mercial affairs. 

211. Adverbial phrases are (1) prepositional 
or (2) infinitive in form: as, 

(1) I wandered by the brookside. 

(2) He has come to show us truth. 



THE PHRASE 229 

Exercise 64. Tell whether the adverbial 
phrases in the following sentences are preposi- 
tional or infinitive in form, and name the word 
modified by each. 

1. Honor and shame from no condition rise. 

2. A man he was to all the country dear. 

3. Very little is needed to make a happy life. 

4. The King of France went up the hill. 

5. Spare your breath to cool your porridge. 

6. At length he left school and became a soldier. 

7. For him no minstrel raptures swell. 

8. To idle, silly, flattering words, I pray you, ne'er 
give heed. 

9. He carried the farmer to barter his grain. 
10. God moves in a mysterious way 

His wonders to perform. 

212. Substantive phrases are ( 1 ) infinitive or 
(2) gerund phrases. 

( 1 ) Children quickly learn to imitate their elders. 

(2) He remembered hearing the selfsame tune. 

213. The gerund (156) in most of its uses is 
equivalent to an infinitive : as, 

Loving one's neighbor (to love one's neighbor) is ful- 
filling the law (to fulfill the law). 

214. Infinitive phrases that are used as nouns 
may be (1) the subject of a verb; (2) the direct 
object of a verb; (3) appositive; (4) the predi- 
cate nominative; (5) used with a preposition; 
(6) the secondary object. 



230 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

( 1 ) To relieve the wretched was his pride. 

(2) Mahomet resolved to end the conspiracy. 

(3) It is accounted great bliss to have honorable 
leisure. 

(4) His ambition was to amass a fortune. 

(5) It is thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast 
out. 

(6) The Indians taught the white men to smoke. 

215. Gerund phrases (208) maybe (1) the 
subject of a verb; (2) the object of a verb; (3) 
the predicate nominative; (4) used with a prepo- 
sition; (5) the adverbial accusative. 

( 1 ) His facing the enemy is a proof of courage. 

(2) Scott disliked studying Greek. 

(3) His chief amusement was playing chess. 

(4) The art of writing English is not easy to master. 

(5) The play is worth seeing several times. 

216. Phrases which are not connected in 
grammatical structure with the rest of the sen- 
tence are called independent phrases. Infinitive 
phrases and gerund phrases when used in this 
way are called parenthetical phrases. An inde- 
pendent phrase may also consist of a noun or 
pronoun used with a participle in the nominative 
absolute construction (98). 

To tell the truth, I had not heard one word of his 
speech. (Parenthetical infinitive phrase.) 

Generally speaking, boys prefer outdoor sports to 
gymnastic exercises. (Parenthetical gerund phrase.) 



THE PHRASE 231 

The verdict having been rendered, the jury was dis- 
missed. (Nominative absolute.) 

Exercise 65. Tell whether the phrases in the 
following sentences are adjectival, adverbial, sub- 
stantive, or independent phrases, and explain the 
special use of each. 

i. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 

2. Great care must be taken to follow directions ex- 
actly. 

3. In those days the, life of a soldier was wild and 
rough. 

4. " Johnson," said Goldsmith, " has nothing of the 
bear but his skin." 

5. So let us welcome peaceful evening in. 

6. Wordsworth's desire was to use only every-day 
words for his poetry. 

7. His legs, after writhing about wildly, twisted 
under his body. 

8. A visitor being announced, the hostess turned to 
welcome him. 

9. It was wrong to rob the nest. 

10. To say the least, his conduct was surprising. 

11. Reading novels may sometimes be a waste of time. 

12. It does not become me to contradict you. 

13. Having thrown the tea overboard, the guests at 
the Boston Tea-party returned quietly to their homes. 

14. I have a merry tale to tell you. 

15. The Squire's favorite amusement was hunting the 
hare. 

16. Man-like it is to fall into sin. 

17. I'm sure you must be weary, dear, with soaring up 
so high. 



232 , ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

1 8. Said the cunning Spider to the Fly, " Dear friend, 

what can I do, 
To prove the warm affection I've always felt for 
you: 

19. Let love through "all your actions shine. 

20. To be sure, I will join your party. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
THE CLAUSE 

217. A simple sentence consists of a single 
statement or proposition and contains no depend- 
ent or subordinate clauses ( 85 ) . A complex sen- 
tence consists of a principal proposition and one or 
more dependent or subordinate clauses, used as 
(1) an adjective, (2) an adverb, (3) a substan- 
tive or noun. 

(1) Time and tide wait for no man. (Simple sen- 
tence.) 

(2) All that glitters is not gold. (Complex sentence.) 

The same group of words may be used as an 
adjectival clause in one sentence, an adverbial 
clause in another, and a noun or substantive clause 
in a third: as, 

( 1 ) We came to the field where the battle was fought. 
(Adjectival clause.) 

(2) We raised our flag where the battle was fought. 
(Adverbial clause.) 

(3) No one could tell where the battle was fought. 
(Substantive clause.) 

218. Adjectival clauses are used to modify 
nouns or pronouns and are connected with the 

233 



234 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

principal propositions by ( i ) relative pronouns, 
and (2) relative adverbs (chiefly when, where, 
and why) . 

( 1 ) 'Tis the prettiest little parlor that ever you did 
spy. 

(2) The place where Macgregor sits is the head of 
the table. 

Exercise 66. Find the adjectival clauses in the 
following sentences and tell what word each 
modifies. 

1. The exact spot where Goldsmith is buried is un- 
known. 

2. All's well that ends well. 

3. The night is long that never finds the day. 

4. They never, never, wake again, who sleep upon 
your bed. 

5. I love to remember the days when I was young. 

6. Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just. 

7. The drummer-boys whose story Kipling tells in 
" The Drums of the Fore and Aft " were named Jakin 
and Lew. 

8. Who can tell the reason why a dog will love even 
an unkind master? 

9. Louis XV of France, whom his people called The 
Well-beloved, did much to bring about the Revolution. 

10. The song with which the play ends is " The Elegy 
on a Mad Dog." 

219. Adverbial clauses are used to modify 
verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, and may be con- 
nected with the principal proposition by ( 1 ) rela- 



THE CLAUSE 235 

tive adverbs, or (2) subordinating conjunctions 
(,203). 

1. I have many curious things to show when you are 
there. 

2. If I can rid your town of rats, 

Will you give me a thousand guilders? 

Exercise 67. Find the adverbial clauses in the 
following sentences and tell what word each 
modifies. 

1. When all candles are out, all cats are gray. 

2. It's dull in our town since my playmates left. 

3. But little he'll reck, if they let him sleep on. 

4. Though the wind hath fallen, they drift along. 

5. I came because your horse would come. 

6. Children learn to creep ere they can learn to go. 

7. They did his bidding, because they feared to re- 
fuse him. 

8. Henry V was a far wiser ruler than his father had 
dared to hope. 

9. While the grass groweth, the horse starveth. 

10. Unless you can guess the riddle, your life is forfeit. 

220. Adverbial clauses connected with the 
principal proposition by subordinating conjunc- 
tions may express time, reason, condition, purpose, 
result, or comparison. The chief conjunctions 
which express these ideas are as follows: 

Time: ere, before, after, since, till, until. 

Reason : because, since, as. 

Condition : if, though, although, unless. 



236 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Purpose: that, lest. 

Result: that (following so or such in the principal 
proposition). 
t Comparison : than. 

Exercise 68. Tell by what subordinating con- 
junction each adverbial clause in the following sen- 
tences is connected with the principal proposition, 
and what idea each expresses. 

1. Be silent, that you may hear. 

2. Speak out before you die. 

3. If you do not learn, you must leave. 

4. As he was ambitious, I slew him. 

5. Because they cannot yield, it proves them poor. 

6. Her very frowns are fairer far 
Than smiles of other maidens are. 

7. We waited till the song was done. 

8. Though Elizabeth was vain and imperious, yet 
she made an admirable queen. 

9. Her beauty was so great that it dazzled all be- 
holders. 

10. Take heed lest ye fall. 

221. In clauses of comparison introduced by 
(1) the subordinating conjunction than or (2) 
the relative adverb as, the predicate and other 
important words are often understood, not ex- 
pressed. Sentences and clauses in which import- 
ant words are understood are called elliptical. 

(1) Two heads are better than one (is good). 

(2) He is as patient as Job (was patient). 



THE CLAUSE 237 

Exercise 69. Supply the omitted words in the 
following sentences. 

i. Red as a rose is she. 

2. She is more beautiful than day. 

3. Reasons are as plentiful as blackberries. 

4. Half a loaf is better than no bread. 

5. It is better to learn late than never. 

6. He is richer than Croesus. 

7. No blithe Irish lad was so happy as I. 

8. None was so fair as she. 

9. Her locks were yellow as gold. 

10. I like Tennyson's poems better than Browning's. 

222. Substantive clauses (217) may be (1) 
the subject of a verb, (2) the object of a verb, 
(3) the predicate nominative, (4) appositive, 
(5) used with a preposition. Substantive clauses 
frequently begin with the conjunction that, used 
in an introductory sense. 

( 1 ) That Washington was a great general was ad- 
mitted even by the enemy. 

(2) He well knew how the King's favor was to be 
won. 

(3) The offense charged against Othello was that he 
had bewitched Desdemona. 

(4) It was known that Lafayette sympathized with 
America. 

(5) There is nothing new except what is forgotten. 

Exercise 70. Find the substantive clauses in 
the following sentences and tell how each is used. 



238 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

1. I do hope that I shall live to see him. 

2. " I thank j^ou, gentle sir," she said, " for what 
you're pleased to say." 

3. How the son of Louis XVI met his death has 
never been ascertained. 

4. Give him what is reasonable. 

5. The reason given for the theft of the " Mona 
Lisa " was that the thief wished to restore it to Italy. 

6. Whether the reason given for the theft is true or 
not is a matter not easily determined. 

7. Whether the reason given is the true one or not 
no one knows. 

8. The fact that many deaths occur from preventable 
diseases is unquestionable. 

9. Newton wondered why the apple fell to the 
ground. 

10. It was agreed that a council should be held. 

223. A compound sentence consists of two or 
more independent or co-ordinate members, be- 
tween which a co-ordinating conjunction is either 
expressed or understood. The members of a com- 
pound sentence may be (1) simple or (2) complex. 

( 1 ) Life is thorny, and youth is vain. 

(2) The minstrel who had a good tale to tell was 
sure of a welcome, and for his pains he was always richly 
rewarded. 

Exercise 71. Divide the compound sentences 
into their co-ordinate members and tell whether 
the members are simple or complex. 

1. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will 
learn in no other. 



THE CLAUSE 239 

2. The truth is told at last, and Bassanio and 
Gratiano learn the identity of the lawyer who saved the 
day for Antonio. 

3. I was born an American; I will live an American; 
I shall die an American. 

4. It should be remembered that mediaeval fashions 
did not change as quickly as in modern days, and that 
changes were not identical with the accession of a new 
sovereign. 

5. Haughtily the trumpets peal, and gaily dance the 
bells. 

6. The bride had consented ; the gallant came late. 

7. Tennyson has told his stories in very beautiful 
English, and it is English such as we speak to-day. 

8. What is it thou hast seen? or what hast heard? 

9. The old sorrows vanish into light, and the new 
sun ever rises bringing in the new year. 

10. Csedmon could neither read nor write, nor is it 
at all likely that he learned to do either even after he be- 
came a monk. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

EXERCISES IN THE FORMA- 
TION AND COMBINATION 
OF SENTENCES 

Exercise 72. Change the italicized participial 
phrases in the following sentences into subordinate 
clauses, and tell whether the clause is substantive, 
adjectival, or adverbial. 

1. A mother crab, trying to improve her daughter s 
manners, criticised her for walking sideways. 

2. Rip Van Winkle saw a dwarf carrying a keg upon 
his back. 

3. " The grapes are sour," said the fox, walking 
away disdainfully. 

4. Looking about him in consternation, Rip saw only 
unfamiliar faces. 

5. Knowing the fickleness of the Roman people, An- 
tony wished his speech to follow that made by Brutus. 

6. A poor slave, having escaped from a cruel master, 
wandered into the desert. 

7. A miser, having buried a lump of gold in the earth, 
went daily to visit his treasure. 

8. Knowing Brutus to be Ccesars most trusted friend, 
Cassius was anxious to induce him to join the conspiracy. 

9. A jackdaw, having found some peacock's feathers, 
proceeded to decorate himself with them. 

240 



EXERCISES IN SENTENCE FORMATION 241 

10. The wolf, noticing the marks of the collar on the 
dog's neck, inquired what had caused them. 

Exercise 73. Combine each of the following 
pairs of simple sentences into a complex sentence 
containing an adjectival clause. 

Example: Bryant and Whittier are two popular Ameri- 
can poets. They were born in New Eng- 
land. 

Combined : Bryant and Whittier are two popular 
American poets who were born in New 
England. 

i. Once a brave man was taken prisoner. He had 
long fought for the liberty of his native land. 

2. A certain Arab of the desert owned a horse. The 
fame of this horse had spread far and wide. 

3. The Duke of Wellington and Napoleon were born 
in the same year. They were the opposing generals in 
the battle of Waterloo. 

4. The prisoner was confined in a dark cell. For 
many months he was not allowed to leave it. 

5. My books are my never-failing friends. I con- 
verse with them day by day. 

6. Benedict Arnold was placed in command of a 
fortress. The fortress was West Point. 

7. Washington Irving wrote many stories based on 
Dutch legends. He was born in New York. 

8. Longfellow was born in a house in Portland. 
Many people visit the house. 

9. Douglas caused a case of silver to be made. He 
put the Bruce's heart into it. 

10. Charles Dickens was the most popular novelist of 



242 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

his day. In his novels he did a great deal to bring about 
much needed social reforms. 

Exercise 74. Combine each of the following 
pairs of simple sentences into a complex sentence 
containing a substantive clause. 

Example: Ants possess remarkable intelligence. We 
can learn this by observing their habits. 

Combined: By observing the habits of ants we can learn 
that they possess remarkable intelligence. 

i. King Richard had escaped from prison. Prince 
John did not know it. 

2. Air-ships may or may not take the place of rail- 
ways. Time alone will show. 

3. General Braddock did not understand the Indian 
mode of warfare. This was very unfortunate. 

4. Bacon's enemies brought a charge against him. 
They charged him with selling justice. 

5. The ancient laws of Athens rendered the expor- 
tation of figs criminal. All students of Greek history 
know this. 

6. You will receive credit for your good work. Of 
this you may be quite certain. 

7. The applicant for the position was inexperienced. 
He did not deny it. 

8. The advice given by Washington to Braddock 
was excellent. Braddock found this out too late. 

9. The Boy Scout movement is very popular. This 
fact has become plain to all educational authorities. 

10. Many old French customs are followed in New 
Orleans. Every visitor to New Orleans notices this. 



EXERCISES IN SENTENCE FORMATION 243 

Exercise 75. Combine each of the following 
pairs of simple sentences into a complex sentence 
containing an adverbial clause. 

Example: Franklin had finished his mission in Fiance. 

Then he returned to America. 
Combined: When Franklin had finished his mission in 

France he returned to America. 

i. The dog saw the reflected image of the meat. He 
dropped the meat into the deep water. 

2. Rip Van Winkle fled to the mountains. He did 
not wish to listen to the reproaches of his wife. 

3. The mouse gnawed patiently at the net. Finally 
the lion was set free. 

4. The Pilgrim Fathers strove to overcome the hard- 
ships of their lot. They wished to make a home for 
themselves. 

5. Lee was a great general. He was nevertheless 
defeated. 

6. Bryant is a popular poet. His popularity does 
not equal that of Longfellow. 

7. The Isthmus of Panama was freed from the dis- 
ease of yellow fever through the efforts of American 
physicians. The climate has been healthy ever since. 

8. He spent some time in New York. After his 
stay there he left for Washington. 

9. Sir Walter Scott had a very retentive memory. 
He was able to repeat any poem after hearing it only 
once. 

10. The Japanese people are very anxious to progress 
rapidly. They have adopted many Western customs. 



244 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 76. Combine each of the following 
groups of statements into a simple sentence, ac- 
cording to one of the methods indicated below. 

(a) The soldier was anxious to join the expedition. 
He begged his colonel to grant him the privilege. 

Combined: The soldier was anxious to join the ex- 
pedition and begged his colonel to grant him the privilege. 
{Using compound predicate.) 

(b) A shadowy object was in the middle of the road. 
Ichabod was badly frightened. 

Combined: Ichabod was badly frightened by a 
shadowy object in the middle of the road. (Using 
prepositional phrase.) 

(c) Marconi invented wireless telegraphy. Greater 
safety was thus secured for travelers by sea. 

Combined: Marconi invented wireless telegraphy, 
thus securing greater safety for travelers by sea. ( Using 
participial phrase.) 

(d) I have a difficult task for you. You must per- 
form it immediately. 

Combined: I have a difficult task for you to perform 
immediately. (Using infinitive phrase.) 

(e) John Adams was the second president of the 
United States. Thomas Jefferson was the third presi- 
dent. They died on the same day. 

Combined: John Adams, the second president of the 
United States, and Thomas Jefferson, the third president, 
died on the same day. (Using nouns in apposition.) 



EXERCISES IN SENTENCE FORMATION 245 

1. The prisoner saw a flower growing in the crevice 
of the wall. He welcomed it in his solitude. 

2. Longfellow is the most popular American poet. 
Hawthorne is the greatest American novelist. They were 
both natives of New England. 

3. The magician disguised himself as a vendor of 
lamps. He cried his wares under the windows of Alad- 
din's palace. 

4. The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and the 
Pacific Ocean. A new outlet is thus given to navigation 
and commerce. 

5. In 1850 the office of poet-laureate was vacant. 
The title was then conferred upon Tennyson. 

6. The little girl sat watching the shadows. She 
watched them until the sun had set. 

7. A villager one day found a snake. The snake 
was almost dead with cold. He carried it to his home. 

8. Llewellyn discovered his infant. It was lying in 
the cradle. It was hidden under the coverings. 

9. Tom Sawyer is a character very popular among 
boy readers. What makes him popular is his truth to 
boy nature. 

10. Charles Lamb was a famous writer. He was 
also a clerk. He was a clerk in the East India House. 

11. The spider finally succeeded in attaching its web 
to the ceiling. It had made nine unsuccessful attempts. 

12. "The Rose and the Ring" was written by 
Thackeray. Thackeray was the author of " Vanity 
Fair." 

13. Bedivere hid the sword among the reeds by the 
water's edge. Then he returned to his master. 

14. The game ended in a tie. Another game will be 
played next week in order to decide the championship. 



246 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

15. The Athenians were in the habit of ridding them- 
selves of unpopular citizens. They did this by voting 
for their expulsion. 

16. Elizabeth was the last of the Tudor rulers of 
England. She was the daughter of Henry VIII and 
Anne Boleyn. 

17. Shakespeare gained considerable wealth through 
his share in the ownership of the Globe Theater. He 
then retired to Stratford. 

18. Siegfried slew the dragon. He then bathed in the 
dragon's blood. 

19. Andre was captured. Arnold's treason was dis- 
covered. 

20. Pocahontas saved Captain John Smith's life. She 
was the daughter of Powhatan. 



CHAPTER XXV 

ANALYSIS 

224. The analysis of a sentence is the process 
of separating a sentence into its parts, according 
to their use in grammar. The simple sentence is 
analyzed by finding its subject and predicate verb, 
and explaining the use of whatever complement 
and modifying words and phrases the sentence 
contains. The analysis of a complex sentence re- 
quires, in addition, the explanation of the use of 
the subordinate clause or clauses, and the analysis 
of those clauses. A compound sentence is analyzed 
by dividing it into two or more co-ordinate mem- 
bers. Each co-ordinate member is then analyzed 
as a simple or a complex sentence, according to 
its form. 

EXAMPLE I 

The merciful man is merciful to his beast. 

Simple Declarative Sentence. 

Subject, man. 

Predicate Verb, is. 

Predicate Adjective, merciful. 

C the, ??zeray«/(adjectival modifiers of subject). 

-.. .._ \ to his beast (adverbial modifier of predicate 
Modifiers^ ,. . N 

adjective). 

I his (adjectival modifier of beast). 

247 



248 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 77. Analyze the following simple sen- 
tences. 

i. Between the cliff and the forest there ruled a 
Saxon king. 

2. To do two things is to do neither. 

3. It is well to moor your bark with two anchors. 

4. This story was fanned by breezes of malice, and 
became a very serious element of mischief to him. 

5. There is always waste land in the human heart to 
be tilled. 

6. Then seek your job with thankfulness and work 
till further orders. 

7. How far is St. Helena from the field of Waterloo? 

8. Mournfully from the barge Arthur answered 
and bade him pray. 

9. In the other barge sat Thomas Wyatt, a young 
poet and courtier, twenty-three years old. 

10. This gallant fight of the little Revenge against 
the huge navy of Spain is one of the great things in the 
story of the sea. 

11. All day and many days I rode, 

My horse's head set towards the sea. 

12. For himself doth a man work evil in working evil 
for another. 

13. What shall I do to be forever known? 

14. Stately and tall he moves in the hall, 
The chief of a thousand for grace. 

15. In the reign of Henry I, the third Norman king 
of England, there lived a monk called Geoffrey of Mon- 
mouth. 



ANALYSIS 



249 



EXAMPLE II 

Thou hast wounded the spirit that loved thee. 
Complex Declarative Sentence. 

Subject, thou. 



Principal Proposition, 
Thou hast wounded^ 
the spirit. 



Predicate Verb, hast wounded. 
Object, spirit. 

f the 
Modifiers of 
Object. 



that loved thee 
j (adjectival 
I clause). 



Subordinate Clause, 
that loved thee. 

(Connective that, rela- 
tive pronoun). 



f Subject, that. 
I Pr 



Predicate Verb, loved. 
Object, thee. 



Principal Proposition, 
He hath returned. 



EXAMPLE III 

He hath returned to regions whence he came. 
Complex Declarative Sentence. 

( Subject, he. 
Predicate Verb, hath returned. 

[ to regions (adverbial 
phrase, modifier of 
predicate verb). 
ers j whence he came 
(adjectival clause, 
modifying re- 
[ gions). 

Subordinate Clause, f Subject, he. 

whence he came. J Predicate Verb, came. 
(Connective, whence, j Modifier of Predicate 

relative adverb.) whence. 



Verb, 



250 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 78. Analyze the sentences in Exer- 
cise 66. 



EXAMPLE IV 

The Chancellor mused as he nibbled his pen. 
Complex Declarative Sentence. 



Principal Proposition, 
The Chancellor mused. < 



Subject, Chancellor. 
Predicate Verb, mused. 



< Modifiers 



the (modifier of 
subject). 

as he nibbled his 
pen (adverbial 
clause, modi- 
fier of predi- 
cate verb). 



Subordinate Clause, 
as he nibbled his pen. 

( Connective as, rela- 
tive adverb.) 



r Subject, he. 

Predicate Verb, nibbled. 

Object, pen. 

Modifier of Predicate Ve/b, as. 
, Modifier of Object, his. 



Exercise 79. Analyze the sentences in Exercise 



67. 



EXAMPLE V 

Some remedies are worse than the disease. 
Complex Declarative Sentence. 



ANALYSIS 



251 



Subject, remedies. 
Predicate Verb, are. 
Predicate Adjective, worse. 



Principal Proposition, < 
Some remedies are 



ivorse. 



Modifiers { 



some (modifier of 
subject). 

than the disease 
(adverbial clause, 
modifier of pred- 
icate adjective). 



Subordinate Clause, 

than the disease (is bad). 
(Connective than, subordi 

nating conjunction.) 

Exercise 80. Analy: 
cises 68 and 6g. 



-i 



r Subject, disease. 

Predicate Verb, is. , 

^ ,. a,- I under- 

rredicate Adjec- > , 

tive, bad. 
' the sentences in Exer- 



EXAMPLE VI 

Braddock did not know that the Indians were crafty. 
Complex Declarative Sentence containing a Substantive 
Clause used as the Direct Object. 

Subject, Braddock. 

Predicate Verb, did knoiu. 

Direct Object, that the Indians were crafty. 

Modifier of Predicate Verb, not. 

Substantive Clause, that f Subject, Indians, 
the Indians were crafty, Predicate Verb, were. 
(introduced by that, sub- 1 Predicate Adjective, crafty. 
ordinating conjunction), i Modifier of Subject, the. 



252 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Exercise 81. Analyze the sentences in Exercise 
70. 

The complex sentence containing a subordinate 
clause which is complex may be analyzed as fol- 
lows: 

EXAMPLE VII 

'Tis my faith that every flower 
Enjoys the air it breathes. 

A complex declarative sentence. The principal proposi- 
tion is 'Tis my faith; the subordinate clause is that every 
flower . . . breathes, a substantive clause in apposition 
with the subject and introduced by the subordinating con- 
junction that. The subordinate clause is complex, having 
for its principal proposition, every flower enjoys the air, 
and for its subordinate clause (which) it breathes, an ad- 
jectival modifier of air. [The arrangement of subject, 
predicate verb, etc., should be as in the examples given 
above.] 

EXAMPLE VIII 

Bunyan knew the Bible thoroughly, and its poetry filled 
his soul. 

A compound declarative sentence. The first co-ordinate 
member is, Bunyan knew the Bible thoroughly ; the second 
co-ordinate member is, its poetry filled his soul. The con- 
nective is and (co-ordinating conjunction). Each of the 
members is to be analyzed in the form for simple sen- 
tences. 

Exercise 82. Analyze the sentences in Exercise 
7i- 



ANALYSIS 253 

Miscellaneous Examples for Analysis 
Exercise 83. Analyze the following sentences. 
i. There never was an age when it was possible for 
people to be so practical in their charities. 

2. The West seems to take a pride in thinking that 
it is subduing nature. 

3. No one thinks of winter when the grass is green. 

4. " Is there anybody there? " said the traveler. 

5. Dickens thought nothing of walking twenty or 
thirty miles a day. 

6. The ideas and words that seem simplest turn out 
most complex. 

7. Who Robin Hood was we do not certainly know, 
nor does it matter much. 

8. Over the Normans, too, the land threw its spell, 
and made them love it beyond all things. 

9. What you cannot finish you must leave undone. 

10. A ballad is much shorter than a romance, and 
therefore much more easily learned and remembered. 

11. I pray you, Master Lieutenant, see me safe up. 

12. You have shown me the road to go, and I propose 
to tread it. 

13. The ancient civilization of India had its own ideal 
of perfection towards which its efforts were directed. 

14. You can start this very evening if you choose. 

15. Learn that Hercules helps none but those that are 
willing to help themselves. 

16. Away flew the stag through the thick woods; but 
he was sadly hindered, his antlers catching in the low 
branches, and checking his furious leaps. 

17. In the life of Jonathan Swift there are things which 
puzzle even the wisest. 



254 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

1 8. Two years after Oliver was born his father moved 
to Lissoy, another and a better parish. 

19. To give Goldsmith money was like pouring water 
into a sieve. 

20. The bugle's note and cannon's roar the death-like 
silence broke. 

21. From all the batteries of the Tower pealed loud 
the voice of fear. 

22. " They'll have fleet steeds that follow!" quoth 
young Lochinvar. 

23. The history of the world is but the biography of 
great men. 

24. It was a common feat to drink the horn dry at a 
single draught. 

25. In the early seventeenth century, England was 
growing more Puritan every day. 

26. He saw the cataract of the Golden River springing 
from the hillside, scarcely five hundred feet above him. 

27. What had once been the richest soil in the kingdom 
became a shifting heap of red sand. 

28. In a crack near a cupboard filled with good things 
there once lived a young mouse with her mother. 

29. None of us know what fairy palaces we may build 
of beautiful thought. 

30. It is likely that the acting in Shakespeare's time was 
much quicker than modern acting. 



PART III 

TEN-MINUTE PLAYS FOR THE 
CLASSROOM 



Young people often feel more at home with 
their books if they have had some practice in 
acting and speaking as the characters who live in 
the pages of the books really did. The four short 
plays included in the following section are in- 
tended to give an opportunity for practice of this 
kind, and at the same time to help the pupils who 
represent the different characters to acquire the 
power of speaking clearly and intelligently. The 
plays are arrangements of interesting scenes from 
well-known books. Though the dialogue is for 
the most part given in its original form, some nec- 
essary changes and additions have been made in 
order to help out the action. The plays can, of 
course, be used for reading as well as for acting. 



A HAPPENING AT SALEM HOUSE 

From Charles Dickens's " David Copperfield " 

CHARACTERS 

David Copperfield ) D •, t c ; u 

_ ^ f Fupils at balem House 

Tommy Traddles > a * 

( Academy. 
James Steerforth } 

Mr. Creak.le — Head Master. 

Mr. Mell— A Teacher. 

Other Pupils 

INTRODUCTION 

David Copperfield, at eight* years of age, has been sent 
to a school called Salem House, kept by a harsh and brutal 
master, Mr. Creakle. Mr. Creakle's favorite pupil, James 
Steerforth, is a clever but self-willed and unprincipled lad, 
much older than David. Mr. Mell is an underpaid, 
overworked teacher, whose mother is so poor that she 
lives in an almshouse. David knows this circumstance, 
and has told it to Steerforth, not meaning, however, to 
injure Mr. Mell by doing so. Tommy Traddles is an 
awkward, warm-hearted boy, always blundering into 
trouble. 

The scene is a schoolroom full of boys who 
are supposed to be studying. Instead of study- 

257 



258 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

ing, however, they are creating an uproar, laugh- 
ing, talking, singing, shuffling, doing everything 
possible to disturb Mr. Mell, who is seated at his 
desk in the front of the room, wearily leaning 
his head upon his hand. Beside his desk stands 
David, who holds a dog-eared book, from which 
he has been reciting a lesson. Steerforth is loung- 
ing in the back of the room with his hands in his 
pockets, whistling loudly. 

Mr. Mell (suddenly starting up, taking the 
book from David, and striking the desk violently 
with it). Silence! What does this mean? It's 
impossible to bear it! It's maddening! How 
can you do it to me, boys? 

[All the boys immediately subside 
into silence except Steerforth, 
who whistles louder than ever.'] 

Mr. Mell (to Steerforth). — Silence, Mr. 
Steerforth ! 

Steerforth (rudely). — Silence, yourself! 
Whom are you talking to? 

Mr. Mell (sharply). — Sit down. 

Steerforth. — Sit down yourself, and mind 
your own business. 

Mr. Mell (with repressed anger). — If you 
think, Steerforth, that I am not acquainted with 
the power you can establish over any mind here 
(laying his hand upon David's head) — or that I 
have not observed you, within a few minutes, 



A HAPPENING AT SALEM HOUSE 259 

urging your juniors on to every sort of outrage 
against me, you are mistaken. 

Steerforth (coolly). — I don't give myself the 
trouble of thinking at all about you, so I'm not 
mistaken, as it happens. 

Mr. Mell. — And when you make use of your 
position of favoritism here to insult a gentle- 
man 

Steerforth. — A what? Where is he? 

Traddles — (from his place on one of the rear 
benches, loudly). — For shame, J. Steerforth! Too 
bad! 

Mr. Mell (to Traddles). — Hold your tongue, 
sir! (To Steerforth.) To insult one who is not 
fortunate in life, and who never gave you the least 
offense, and the many reasons for not insulting 
whom you are old enough and wise enough to 
understand, you commit a mean and base action. 
You can sit down or stand up as you please, sir. 
Copperfield, go on. 

Steerforth (coming forward and facing Mr. 
Mell).— -Young Copperfield, stop a bit. I'll tell 
you what, Mr. Mell, once for all. When you take 
the liberty of calling me mean or base, or any- 
thing of that sort, you are an impudent beggar. 
You are always a beggar, you know; but when you 
do that you are an impudent beggar. 

[Mr. Mell and Steerforth start for- 
ward as though. about to strike each 
other. The boys rise in their 



260 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

places, breathless with interest, but 

suddenly take their seats again, and 

become perfectly quiet, as Mr. 

Creakle appears in the doorway. 

Mr. Mell resumes his place at the 

desk and buries his face in his 

hands.] 

Mr. Creakle (going up to Mr. Mell and 

shaking him roughly by the arm). — Mr. Mell, you 

have not forgotten yourself, I hope. 

Mr. Mell (slowly and hesitatingly). — No, 
sir; no, Mr. Creakle, I have not forgotten myself, 
I — I have remembered myself, sir. I — I could 
wish you had remembered me a little sooner, Mr. 
Creakle. It — it — would have been more kind, sir, 
more just, sir. It would have saved me some- 
thing, sir. 

Mr. Creakle (turning to Steerforth). — Now, 
sir, as he don't condescend to tell me, what is 
this ? 

Steerforth. — What did he mean by talking 
about favorites, then? 

Mr. Creakle (sharply). — Favorites? Who 
talked about favorites? 
Steerforth. — He did. 

Mr. Creakle (angrily to Mr. Mell). — And 
pray, what did you mean by that, sir? 

Mr. Mell (quietly). — I meant, Mr. Creakle, 
as I said, that no pupil had a right to avail him- 
self of his position of favoritism to degrade me. 



A HAPPENING AT SALEM HOUSE 2G1 

Mr. Creakle (scornfully). — To degrade you! 
My stars! But give me leave to ask you, Mr. 
What's-your-name (folding his arms), whether, 
when you talked about favorites, you showed 
proper respect to me? To me, sir, — the principal 
of this establishment, and your employer? 

Mr. Mell. — It was not judicious, sir, I am 
willing to admit. I should not have done so if 
I had been cool. 

Steerforth. — Then he said I was mean, and 
then he said I was base, and then I called him a 
beggar. If I had been cool perhaps I shouldn't 
have called him a beggar. But I did, and I am 
ready to take the consequences of it. (A low stir 
among the hoys.) 

Mr. Creakle. — I am surprised, Steerforth, — 
although your candor does you honor, certainly, 
— I am surprised, Steerforth, I must say, that you 
should attach such an epithet to any person em- 
ployed and paid in Salem House, sir. (Steerforth 
laughs disdainfully.) That's not an answer, sir, to 
my remark. I expect more than that from you. 

Steerforth. — Let him deny it. 

Mr. Creakle. — Deny that he is a beggar, 
Steerforth? Why, where does he go a-begging? 

Steerforth. — If he's not a beggar himself, his 
near relation's one. It's all the same. 

[Mr. Mell pats David gently on the 
shoulder, hut looks fixedly at Steer- 
forth.] 



262 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Steerforth (after a pause) . — Since you expect 
me, Mr. Creakle, to justify myself, and to say 
what I mean — what I have to say is that his 
mother lives on charity in an almshouse. 

Mr. Mell (in a whisper - f as if to himself, and 
still patting David kindly on the shoulder). — 
Yes, I thought so. 

Mr. Creakle (turning to. Mr. Mell and frown- 
ing). — Now, you hear what this gentleman says, 
Mr. Mell. Have the goodness, if you please, to 
set him right before the assembled school. 

Mr. Mell. — He is right, sir, without correc- 
tion. What he has said is true. 

Mr. Creakle (severely). — Be so good, then, 
as to declare, publicly, will you, whether it ever 
came to my knowledge until this moment? 

Mr. Mell. — I believe not, directly. 

Mr. Creakle (angrily). — Why, you know 
not, don't you, man? 

Mr. Mell. — I apprehended you never sup- 
posed my worldly circumstances to be very good. 
You know what my position here is, and always 
has been, here. 

Mr. Creakle (fiercely). — I apprehend, sir, if 
you come to that, that you've been in a wrong po- 
sition entirely, and mistook this for a charity 
school. Mr. Mell, we'll part, if you please. The 
sooner the better. 

Mr. Mell (rising). — There is no time like the 
present. 



A HAPPENING AT SALEM HOUSE 263 

Mr. Creakle. — Sir, to you ! 
Mr. Mell. — I take my leave of you, Mr. 
Creakle, and of all of you (glancing round the 
room). James Steerforth, the best wish I can 
leave you is that you may come to be ashamed of 
what you have done to-day. At present I would 
prefer to see you anything rather than a friend to 
me, or to anyone in whom I feel an interest. 
(Mr. Mell lays his hand upon David's head for a 
moment). Good-bye, David, my boy. 
David (timidly). — Good-bye, sir. 

[Mr. Mell goes out, with head bowed, 
the boys watching him intently as 
he passes before them. Mr. Crea- 
kle takes Steerforth } s hand, and 
shakes it heartily.'] 
Tommy Traddles (indignantly). — It's a 
shame, anyway ! (Mr. Creakle raises his cane 
threateningly.) 



II 



THE WOODEN HORSE 

Arranged from Versions of Book II of the 

JEneid 

CHARACTERS 

Priam — King of Troy. 
Laocoon — A priest of Neptune. 
Sinon — A wily Greek. 
A Messenger. 
Trojan Soldiers. 

INTRODUCTION 

After besieging Troy for ten years in vain, the Greeks 
sought to take the city by a stratagem. They succeeded 
by means of a trick planned by Ulysses, the craftiest 
among them. He directed the Greeks to make a great 
hollow horse of wood, and to place within it their bravest 
men. Then the others were to sail away to an island near 
Troy, and there wait for nightfall. A wily Greek, left 
behind for the purpose, was to tell the Trojans that the 
monster had been built as an offering to the goddess 
Athene, in the hope that the Trojans, believing the story, 
would thereupon drag the horse into the city. At night- 
fall the Greek warriors were to emerge from the body of 
the horse and open the gates to their comrades, so thai they 

264 



THE WOODEN HORSE 265 

might then enter and sack the city that had held out so 
long against their onslaught. This all happened as Ulysses 
planned it, and Troy fell before the conquering Greeks. 

The scene is the deserted camp of the Greeks, 
outside the walls of Troy. On either side of the 
gate stands a drowsy sentinel. Nothing else is to 
be seen, except, in the background, the object that 
represents the Wooden Horse. 

First Trojan (rushing forward breathlessly). 
— Hither, Trojans, hither! The Greeks have 
abandoned the siege; their camp is deserted; Troy 
is saved! 

[Other Trojans, who have entered at 
the call, group themselves around 
the first.'] 

Second Trojan (pointing to various places). 
- — See, here was pitched the tent of the cruel 
Achilles; here was the place of the wily Ulysses; 
here were their troops wont to draw up in battle- 
array ! 

Third Trojan (in sudden surprise, pointing to 
the object in the background). — Behold the 
Wooden Horse ! 

Other Trojans (taking up the cry). — The 
Wooden Horse ! 

[All gather about it, clamoring in con- 
fusion.] 

Fourth Trojan.— Draw it within the walls 
and house it in the citadel ! The gods have be- 
stowed it upon us ! 



266 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Fifth Trojan. — Nay, it is no gift of the gods, 
but a gift of our sinister foes! Let us hurl it 
into the sea; or heap flames beneath it to con- 
sume it utterly ! 

[Again confused clamor among the 

crowd of Trojans. Priam enters 

slowly.] 

First Trojan. — The King ! behold the King ! 

He shall tell us what is fitting to be done with this 

monstrous steed that has been left upon our 

shores. 

Laocoon (entering and striding angrily up to 
the horse). — Ah, wretched Trojans, what madness 
possesses you? Do you indeed believe that the 
foe is gone or that any gift of the Greeks can 
be without treachery? Do you not know the 
guile of the crafty Ulysses? Either this mass of 
timber is a place of ambush for the enemy, or an 
engine fashioned to destroy our city. It is a trap 
of some sort; trust it not. I fear the Greeks even 
when they offer gifts. 

[Hurling his spear at the horse f he 
departs. Two Trojans enter, drag- 
ging between them Sinon, whose 
arms are fastened with a cord.] 
SlNON (in despairing tones). — Miserable man 
that I am, whom the Greeks hate, and the Tro- 
jans are ready to slay! What doom awaits a 
wretch like me, for whom is left no place on sea 
or land? 



THE WOODEN HORSE 267 

Priam (to the shepherds). — Unbind him! (To 
Sinon) Now speak, and tell us who thou art, and 
what fate has given thee into the hands of the 
Trojans. 

Sinon. — I will tell thee all, O King ! I was a 
friend and squire of an unhappy chief, Palamedes, 
whom the wicked Ulysses hated and slew secretly 
one day, when he found him alone. I was angry, 
and in my folly I did not hide my anger, and my 
words came to the ears of Ulysses. From that 
hour he sought to compass my death. But why 
tell a long tale? If you hate all Greeks alike, 
then slay me; that is what the Grecian chiefs 
desire. 

Priam. — Be a Greek no longer, and speak to 
us as to thy fellow-countrymen. Thy life shall 
be spared to thee if thou wilt but tell us truly to 
what end this wooden horse was built. Is it an 
offering of the gods, or is it indeed a deadly gift 
of our foes, wrought to bring destruction upon 
us? ^ 

Sinon (raising his right hand). — By the dear 
life which thou hast restored to me, I swear that I 
no longer owe allegiance to the Greeks and that I 
will confess to thee all the truth ! The horse is an 
offering of atonement to the goddess Pallas 
Athene, whose sanctuary the daring Ulysses vio- 
lated and from whose very altar he snatched the 
Palladium, the image fallen from heaven. 

Priam. — Tell us further, what doom left thee 



268 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

here, fettered and helpless, and alone among thy 
country's foes? 

Sinon. — The oracle of Phoebus bade the Greeks 
seek a fair wind for their return by offering a 
sacrifice of blood. But who was to be sacrificed? 
The priest Calchas for many days refused to 
speak. Then, bribed by Ulysses, he pointed to me, 
Sinon, and named me as the victim. I was bound 
and kept in prison while this mighty structure was 
reared. It was made so monstrous in size that it 
might never be dragged within the city; for if it 
once finds a place within the walls, then Pallas will 
be pledged to the defense of Troy, and all the 
Grecian hosts will strive in vain against their 
enemy. 

(Enter a messenger, showing signs of grief and 
terror) 

Messenger. — Alas, O Trojans, Laocoon has 
paid dearly for his insult to Pallas ! But now was 
he sacrificing a bull to Neptune on the beach. His 
two sons were aiding him in his office. Just as his 
hand was raised to strike the victim, two monstrous 
serpents with blood-red crests came speeding over 
the calm waters. In a moment they had gained the 
shore, and in unfaltering train made towards Lao- 
coon. First they twined his sons in their double 
embrace; then, as he rushed to their aid, they 
fastened him in their enormous coils. The strug- 
gles of the fated ones were swiftly over, and now 



THE WOODEN HORSE 269 

their bodies are lying unburied on the sands of the 
beach. 

[ The Trojans utter sounds and make 

gestures to show that they are 

deeply moved.] 

Priam. — He has suffered for his sin, because he 

hurled his guilty spear into the image sacred to 

the gods. Quick! let us draw the horse into our 

citadel, and make supplication to Pallas, that we 

and our children may be held guiltless. 

[All surround the Wooden Horse, 
and carry it within the gates.] 



THE ESCAPE OF CEDRIC 

Arranged from " Ivanhoe " 

CHARACTERS 

Cedric the Saxon — Thane of Rotherwood. 

Athelstane of Coningsburgh — Cedric's 
kinsman and a descendant of the Saxon kings. 

Wamba the Jester — A member of Cedric's 
household. 

The Warder of the Castle. 

INTRODUCTION 

Cedric the Saxon and his party, consisting of Athel- 
stane, Rowena, Isaac of York, and the wounded Ivanhoe, 
have been captured by Norman knights and imprisoned in 
the Norman castle of Torquilstone. The jester, Wamba, 
borrows Friar Tuck's frock in order to gain admission to 
the castle. 

The scene is the courtyard of the castle. At 
one end is a gate beside which stands the warder. 
Outside the gate is Wamba, disguised as a friar. 

Warder (impatiently). — What is thy name and 
errand, shaveling? 

270 



THE ESCAPE OF CEDRIC 271 

Wamba (in a droning voice). — Pax Vobiscum ! 
I am a poor brother of the order of St. Francis, 
come hither to do my office to certain unhappy 
prisoners now secured within the castle. 

Warder. — Thou art a bold friar to come 
hither, where, saving our own confessor, a cock of 
thy feather hath not crowed these twenty years. 
But since we have these Saxon hogs within our 
gates, thou mayest enter and go about the task of 
preparing them for the slaughter-house. (Opens 
the gate and admits Wamba.) Follow me and I 
will bring thee to those whom thou seekest. (Goes 
to rear of court, opens door leading to Cedric's 
chamber, and calls out) Here is one would speak 
with the Saxons ! 

[Enter Cedric and Athelstane. Exit Warder.] 

Wamba. — Pax Vobiscum ! The blessing of St. 
Denis, St. Dunstan, St. Duthoc, and all other saints 
whatsoever, be upon ye and about ye ! 

Cedric. — With what intent art thou come 
hither? 

Wamba (in a solemn voice). — To bid you pre- 
pare yourselves for death. 

Cedric (starting). — It is impossible! Fearless 
and wicked as they are, they dare not attempt such 
open and gratuitous cruelty. 

Wamba (as before). — Alas! to restrain them 
by their sense of humanity is the same as to stop 
a runaway horse with a bridle of silk thread. Be- 
think thee, therefore, noble Cedric, and you also, 



272 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

gallant Athelstane, what crimes you have com- 
mitted in the flesh; for this very day will you be 
called to answer at a higher tribunal. 

Cedric. — Hearest thou this, Athelstane? We 
must rouse up our hearts to this last action, since 
better it is we should die like men than live like 
slaves. 

Athelstane (calmly). — I am ready to stand 
the Worst of their malice, and shall walk to my 
death with as much composure as ever I did to 
my dinner. 

Cedric. — Let us then to our holy gear, father. 

Wamba (in his natural jester's voice). — Wait 
yet a moment, good uncle. Better look long before 
you leap in the dark. 

Cedric (startled). — By my faith, I should know 
that voice ! 

Wamba (throwing back his cowl). — It is that 
of your trusty slave and jester. Had you taken a 
fool's advice, you would not have been here at 
all. Take a fool's advice now, and you will not 
be here long. 

Cedric. — How meanest thou, knave ! 

Wamba. — Even thus: Take thou this frock 
and cord, which are all the orders I ever had, and 
march quietly out of the castle, leaving me your 
cloak and girdle, to take the long leap in thy stead. 

Cedric. — Leave thee in my stead ! Why, they 
would hang thee, my poor knave ! 

Wamba. — E'en let them do as they are per- 



THE ESCAPE OF CEDRIC 273 

mitted. I trust — no disparagement to your birth 
— that the son of Witless may hang in a chain 
with as much gravity as the son of an alderman. 

Cedric. — Well, Wamba, for one thing will I 
grant thy request; and that is, if thou wilt make 
the exchange of garments with Lord Athelstane 
instead of me. 

Wamba. — No, by St. Dunstan, there were little 
reason in that. Good right is there that the son 
of Witless should suffer to save the son of Here- 
ward, but little wisdom is there in his dying for 
the benefit of one whose fathers were strangers to 
his. 

Cedric (indignantly). — Villain, the fathers of 
Athelstane were monarchs of England! 

Wamba. — They might be whomsoever they 
pleased, but my neck stands too straight on my 
shoulders to have it twisted for their sakes. Where- 
fore, good my master, either take my proffer your- 
self, or suffer me to leave this dungeon as free as 
I entered it. 

Cedric (eagerly). — Let the old tree wither, so 
the stately hope of the forest be preserved. Save 
the noble Athelstane, my trusty Wamba. It is 
the duty of each who has Saxon blood in his veins. 
Thou and I will abide together the utmost rage 
of our injurious oppressors, while he, free and 
safe, shall arouse the awakened spirits of our 
countrymen to avenge us. 

Athelstane (in a loud voice), — Not so, father 



274 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Cedric, not so. I would rather remain in this hall 
a week without food save the prisoner's measure 
of water, than embrace the opportunity to escape 
which the slave's untaught kindness has purveyed 
for his master. 

Wamba. — You are called wise men, sirs; and I 
a crazed fool; but, uncle Cedric and cousin Athel- 
stane, the fool shall decide this controversy for 
ye, and save ye the trouble of straining courtesies 
any further. I am like John-a-Duck's mare, that 
will let no man mount her but John-a-Duck. I 
came but to save my master, and if he will not 
consent — basta — I can but go home again. Kind 
service cannot be chucked from hand to hand like 
a shuttlecock or stoolball. I'll hang for no man 
but my own born master. 

Athelstane (firmly). — Go then, noble Cedric. 
Neglect not this opportunity. Your presence with- 
out may encourage friends to our rescue; your re- 
maining here would ruin us all. 

Cedric. — And is there any prospect, then, of 
rescue from without? 

Wamba. — Prospect, indeed ! Let me tell you. 
When you fill my cloak, you are wrapped in a gen- 
eral's cassock. Five hundred men are without, and 
I was this morning one of their chief leaders. My 
fool's cap was a casque, and my bauble a truncheon. 
Well, we shall see what good they will make in ex- 
changing a fool for a wise man. Truly, I fear 
they may lose in valor what they may gain in dis- 



THE ESCAPE OF CEDRIC 275 

cretion. (Pauses; then goes up to Cedric, kneels 
to htm; rises again). And, so, farewell, master! 
and be kind to poor Gurth and his dog Fangs, and 
let my coxcomb hang in the hall at Rotherwood in 
memory that I flung away my life for my master, 
like a faithful — fool. 

Cedric (in faltering tones). — Thy memory 
shall be preserved, while fidelity and affection have 
honor upon earth. But that I trust I shall find the 
means of saving Rowena — and thee, Athelstane, — 
and thee also, my poor Wamba, — thou shouldst 
not overbear me in this matter. (Wamba removes 
his friar's frock and gives it to Cedric, who puts 
it on.) 

Cedric. — I know no language but my own, and 
a few words of their mincing Norman. How shall 
I bear myself like a reverend brother? 

Wamba. — The spell lies in two words. Pax 
Vobiscum will answer queries. If you go or come, 
eat or drink, bless or ban, Pax Vobiscum carries 
you through it all. It is as useful to a friar as a 
broomstick to a witch, or a staff to a conjuror. 
Speak it but thus, in a deep, grave, tone, Pax Vo- 
biscum! It is irresistible. Watch and Ward, 
Knight and Squire, foot and horse, it acts as a 
charm upon them all. I think if they bring me out 
to be hanged to-morrow, as is much to be doubted 
they may, I will try its weight upon the finisher of 
the sentence ! 

Cedric— If such prove the case, my religious 



276 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

orders are soon taken. Pax Vobiscum! I trust I 
shall remember the password. (Takes Athelstane's 
hand.) Noble Athelstane, farewell! (Turning to 
Wamba) And farewell, my poor boy, whose 
heart might make amends for a weaker head! 
I will save you, or return and die with you. The 
royal blood of our Saxon kings shall not be spilt 
while mine beats in my veins, nor shall one hair 
fall from the head of the knave who risked him- 
self for his master, if Cedric's peril can prevent 
it. Farewell ! 

Athelstane. — Farewell, noble Cedric. Re- 
member it is the true part of a friar to accept re- 
freshment if you are offered any. [Exit Cedric] 

Wamba (calling after him, gaily). — Farewell, 
uncle, and remember Pax Vobiscum! 



IV 

THE RETURN OF RIP VAN WINKLE 

Adapted from " The Sketch Book " 
CHARACTERS 

Rip Van Winkle. 

Judith — His Daughter. 

Young Rip Van Winkle — His Son. 

Jacobus Van Slyck — The Village Politician. 

Jonathan Doolittle — The Innkeeper. 

Peter Vanderdonk — The Oldest Inhabitant. 

An Old Man. 

An Old Woman. 

Other Villagers. 

Children. 

INTRODUCTION 

The story of how the genial idler Rip Van Winkle 
encountered Hendrick Hudson and his men on the slope 
of one of the Kaatskill Mountains is well known to all 
readers, young and old. In the little play which follows, 
we see him returning to his home after his long sleep, 
unrecognized by the villagers, and puzzled by the un- 
familiar sights and sounds which greet him at every turn. 

With the exception of the beginning and the end of 
the play, the main part of the dialogue is given as it 
appears in Irving's story. 

277 



278 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Scene. — The green before the Union Hotel. 
Jacobus Van Slyck is distributing handbills to a 
group of villagers, who scan them with much inter- 
est. Several women are gossiping in the back- 
ground. Young Rip Van Winkle is leaning 
against a post, at some little distance from the 
others, yawning at frequent intervals. 

Van Slyck (haranguing the crowd in a loud 
voice) .—Fellow-townsmen, now is the time for 
you to exercise your rights ! You used to think, 
in the old days, when this hotel was " The King's 
Arms," that you were well enough off if you could 
sit on your benches half a day at a stretch, puffing 
away at your pipes, and telling your sleepy stories 
about nothing ! That won't do now ! (Listeners 
nod solemnly to one another.) When you come 
here on Election Day, you must vote for the best 
man to send to Congress. Who is the best man to 
send to Congress? Listen to me and I'll tell you ! 

[Listeners lean forward, eagerly. A 
group of children rush in. They 
stop in front of the villagers, and 
turning towards the place from 
which they entered, hoot and point 
at Rip Van Winkle, who ap- 
proaches slowly, gazing about him 
in bewilderment.] 

Van Slyck (to the children, indignantly). — Be 
quiet, you little runagate scamps ! Have you no 



THE RETURN OF RIP VAN WINKLE 279 

respect for the institutions of your country? How 
dare you disturb voters in this fashion? 

First Boy (pointing to Rip, who has come 
nearer). — Look at his beard! 

Second Boy. — Who ever saw such a beard ! 
Several Children (together, mockingly). — 
Longbeard! Longbeard! 

[Villagers, with threatening gestures, 

induce children to be silent. All 

observe Rip with great curiosity, 

except young Rip Van Winkle, who 

shows no interest, but continues to 

lounge against the post.~\ 

Van Slyck (confidentially, going up to Rip and 

taking him by the arm). — On which side do you 

vote, friend? 

[Rip stares stupidly.] 

First Villager (taking him by the other 

arm). — Are you Federal or Democrat, comrade? 

[Rip continues to stare.] 

Doolittle (in an austere tone). — What brings 

you to this election with a gun on your shoulder 

and a mob at your heels, I should like to know? 

Do you mean to breed a riot in the village? 

Rip (dismayed). — Alas, gentlemen, I am a 
poor, quiet man, a native of the place, and a loyal 
subject of the King, God bless him ! 

Second Villager (excitedly). — A Tory! A 
Tory ! 

Third Villager.— A spy! 



280 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Fourth Villager. — A refugee ! 

All. — Hustle him ! Away with him ! 

DOOLITTLE (with an air of great impor- 
tance). — Order, friends, order! Leave him to 
me ! (Villagers subside gradually.) Now, you, 
sir (solemnly, to Rip), I ask you again, what 
brings you to this village, and whom you seek 
here? 

Rip (humbly). — In deed and in truth, sir, I 
mean no harm! I am only in search of some of 
my neighbors, who used to be found every day 
before this very tavern. 

Doolittle (sharply).— Well, who are they? 
Name them ! 

Rip. — Where's Nicholas Vedder? 

An Old Man. — Nicholas Vedder ? Why, he's 
dead and gone these eighteen years ! There was 
a wooden tombstone in the churchyard that used 
to tell all about him, but that's rotten and gone, 
too. 

Rip. — Where's Brom Dutcher? 

Old Man. — Oh, he went off to the army in the 
beginning of the war. Some say he was killed at 
the storming of Stony Point; — others say he was 
drowned in a squall at the foot of Anthony's Nose ! 
I don't know — he never came back again. 

Rip. — Where's Van Bummel, the schoolmaster? 

Old Man. — He went off to the wars, too — was 
a great militia general and is now in Congress. 

Rip (in despair). — What does it all mean? 



THE RETURN OF RIP VAN WINKLE 281 

War — Congress — Stony Point? Does nobody 
here know Rip Van Winkle? 

First Villager. — Oh ! Rip Van Winkle ! 
To be sure ! That's Rip Van Winkle yonder, 
leaning against the post. 

\_Rip looks towards Rip Van Winkle 
the younger, who yawns loudly.~\ 

Doolittle (to Rip). — Now, sir, let us have an 
end to all this. Who are you, and what is your 
name? 

Rip (in utter confusion). — God knows! I'm 
not myself — I'm somebody else — that's me yon- 
der! No, that's somebody else got into my shoes 
— I was myself last night, but I fell asleep on the 
mountain, and they've changed my gun, and every- 
thing's changed, and I'm changed, and I can't tell 
what's my name or who I am ! 

[Bystanders look at one another, and 
tap their foreheads significantly. 
Judith enters slowly, at first joining 
the group of villagers, then coming 
forward and gazing with interest 
at Rip. As she does so, a child's 
cry, frightened, hut not loud, is 
heard, as if coming from the rear 
of the crowd. ] , 

Judith (turning in the direction of the 
sound). — Hush, you little fool; the old man 
won't hurt you ! 



282 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

Rip (looking closely at Judith). — What is your 
name, my good woman? 

Judith. — Judith Gardenier. 

Rip. — And your father's name? 

Judith. — Ah, poor man, Rip Van Winkle was 
his name, but it's twenty years since he went away 
from home with his gun, and he's never been heard 
of since. His dog came home without him; but 
whether he shot himself or was carried away by 
the Indians, nobody can tell. I was then but a 
little girl. 

Rip. — Where's your mother? 

Judith. — Oh, she died but a short time ago. 
She broke a blood-vessel in a fit of passion at a 
New England peddler. 

Rip (eagerly, taking both her hands). — I am 
your father! Young Rip Van Winkle once — old 
Rip Van Winkle now ! Does nobody know poor 
Rip Van Winkle? 

[All show signs of amazement, except 
young Rip Van Winkle, who con- 
tinues to pay no attention to what is 
happening.'] 

An Old Woman (hobbling forward, peering 
into Rip's face). — Sure enough it is Rip Van 
Winkle! It is himself! Welcome home again, 
old neighbor ! Why, where have you been these 
twenty long years? 

Rip (bewildered). — Twenty years! It was 
only last night I met him on the mountain — the 



THE RETURN OF RIP VAN WINKLE 283 

little old fellow with the keg on his back. I 
helped him carry it, for it seemed a deal too heavy 
for him. He said never a word, but I kept on 
after him, though it thundered loud enough to give 
anyone a fright who wasn't at home on the moun- 
tain-side. 

[Stops, as if lost in amazement. 
Peter Vanderdonk is seen ap- 
proaching.] 

Doolittle. — Ah, Peter Vanderdonk, you have 
come at the right moment! Here is a stranger 
story of the Kaatskills to listen to than ever you 
heard from your grandfather the historian. (To 
Rip, as Vanderdonk joins the group) Go on, 
friend. Where did you go with the keg? 

Rip. — It was a wild place the old fellow led 
me to, and they were a queer outlandish crew with 
their doublets and jerkins and sugar-loaf hats. 
They were playing at ninepins as if their lives 
depended upon it, and when the balls rolled there 
was thunder enough to shake the mountain-side. 
The stoutest of them all had the ordering of the 
rest, and they always waited for him to set his 
flagon down before they took a pull at theirs. Oh, 
that flagon! 

Vanderdonk. — And did you have a pull at the 
flagon, too? 

Rip (ruefully). — I thought no harm of it to 
taste their drink when they weren't looking, for 
I'd done them a service in carrying their keg. But 



284 ELEMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH 

they've made me pay a heavy price for my liquor ! 
I fell asleep while they were at their game, and 
when I woke up I was so stiff-jointed that I 
thought I should never be able to clamber down 
the mountain-side. Then when I came to my 
house I found it gone to rack and ruin, with the 
roof fallen in and the doors off the hinges. Not a 
soul was to be seen that knew me ! My very dog 
had forgotten me ! 

Doolittle. — What say you to his story, neigh- 
bor Vanderdonk? 

Vanderdonk (solemnly). — A true tale, every 
word ! It was old Hendrick Hudson and his crew 
that he saw (Villagers murmur in surprise). 
Every twenty years he comes back with his men to 
the mountain-side here, and plays at ninepins in the 
hollows. It's all written out in the papers in the 
chest my grandfather left me. And when my 
father was a lad, roaming about the mountains, he 
caught a glimpse of them, doublets and jerkins 
and all. More than that (impressively) , I've 
heard their balls thundering along the ravines my- 
self. But I never touched any flagon of theirs, 
nor did my father. 

Rip .(shaking his head in distress). — That 
flagon ! That wicked flagon ! 

Judith. — No matter for the flagon now, 
father. I've a snug, well-furnished house of my 
own, and a husband that will make you welcome 
to it. You remember Will Gardenier, surely? 



THE RETURN OF RIP VAN WINKLE 285 

You gave him many a ride on your back when he 
was an urchin, and I'll answer for it that he'll give 
you a place in the chimney-corner now. (To Rip 
Van Winkle the younger, who has been staring 
at his father in sleepy astonishment) Come, 
brother Rip, I know you're not over fond of work 
of any sort, but you can bestir yourself enough to 
hurry ahead and kill a couple of fat geese for 
supper. Make haste now, if you can ! 

[Rip the younger yawns several 
times, then strolls slowly away.] 
Rip (gazing after him). — My own son, I see! 
I never could endure being in a hurry, myself. 
Judith. — Come, father. 

[She takes his arm. A peal of thun- 
der is heard.] 
Rip. — Ah, you may play out your game by 
yourselves this time ! 

[Judith leads him off.] 
Doolittle. — Well, friends, neighbor Van 
Winkle has slept away his vote, but we wide- 
awake citizens must do our duty at the polls, and 
send the best man to Congress. 

[Crowd disperses, Van Slyck distrib- 
uting handbills among them as they 
go.] 



INDEX 



The numbers refer to pages. 



Adjectives, 209-15; classes of, 
209-12; comparison of, 212- 
13; parsing of, 215; exercise 
in substituting phrases for, 
227-28. 

Adverbs, 216-17; classes of, 
216-17; comparison of, 217- 
18 ; parsing of, 218. 

Affect and effect, 1 14-15. 

Analysis, of simple sentences, 
247-48 ; of complex sen- 
tences, 249-52 ; of compound 
sentences, 252; miscellane- 
ous examples for, 253-54. 

Antecedent, of relative pro- 
noun, 199. 

Apostrophe, uses of the, in 
punctuation, 61 ; figure of 
speech, 107-8. 

Apposition, 149. 

Argumentation, 48-51; exam- 
ples of, 48-49 ; exercises in, 
51-53- 

Borrow and lend, 120. 
Both of Us or None, 6, 7. 
Bring and take, 120. 
Business letters, 76, 78, 87-90. 

Can and may, 112-13. 

Capital letters, uses of, 65-66; 
exercises in the use of, 67- 
68. 

Case, of nouns, 147-56; de- 
fined, 147; nominative, 147- 
50; genitive, 150-52; accusa- 
tive, 153-55; dative, 155. 

Clause, defined, 139; essential 



and non-essential, 201-2; de- 
pendent or subordinate, 233; 
adjectival, 233-34; adver- 
bial, 234-36; elliptical, 236- 
37; substantive, 237-38; ex- 
ercise in changing phrases 
to clauses, 240-41. 

Colon, uses of the, 59. 

Combination of sentences, ex- 
ercises in, 241-46. 

Comma, uses of the, 55-57. 

Comparison, of adjectives, 212- 
13; of adverbs, 217-18. 

Conjugation, to be, 175-77; t0 
love, 179-80. 

Conjunctions, 222-24; classes 
of, 223-24; parsing of, 224. 

Dash, use of the, 62. 
Defective verbs, 158. 
Description, examples of, 27- 

31; exercises in, 30-38. 
Descriptive words, exercises in 

the use of, 33-37. 
Dictating letters, exercise in, 

93- 
Direct and indirect question, 

63, 205-6. 
Direct and indirect quotation, 

defined and illustrated, 69- 

70 ; exercises in, 70-74. 

Escape of Cedric, The, 270-76. 
Essential clauses, 201-2. 
Exclamation point, use of the, 

63, 131. 
Exposition, examples of, 39-42; 
exercises in, 42-47. 



287 



288 



INDEX 



Figures of speech, defined, 
104-5 » exercises in, 105-10. 

Formal letters, 76-77, 83-87. 

Formally and formerly, 115- 
16. 

Forms of the verb, progressive, 
177-78; emphatic, 181; in- 
terrogative, 181; negative, 
181. 

Friendship, letters of, 76-77, 
79-82. 

Gender, of nouns, 145-47. 

Gerund, forms and uses of the, 
193. 

Golden Touch, The, 16-17. 

Goldsmith, selection from Aus- 
tin Dobson's "Life of," 15- 
16. 

Guion, 4-6. 

Happening at Salem House, 
A, 257-63- 

How a Friendship Was Be- 
gun, 12. 

Hyphen, uses of the, 62. 

Indention, exercises in, 19-23. 

Independent phrases, 230. 

Indirect question, 63, 205-6. 

Indirect quotation, 69-74. 

Infinitive, forms and uses of 
the, 190; without to, 190. 

Ingenious Way out of a Dif- 
ficulty, An, 7-8. 

Interjection, the, 225. 

Interrogation point, 63. 

Interrogative sentence, 131; 
pronoun, 205-6; adjective, 
210, 212; adverb, 216. 

Intransitive verbs, 158, 167, 
168, 170-71. 

Inventing conclusions, exercise 
in, 18. 

Irregular verbs, 158; table of, 
159-64. 

Lay and lie, 111-12. 
Leave and let, 120-21. 



Letters, kinds of, 75-76; exam- 
ples of, 75-77, 88-89; of 
friendship, 76-77, 79-82 ; 
formal, 76-77, 83-87; busi- 
ness, 76-78, 87-93 5 exercises 
in writing, 82, 85-86, 90-93. 

Lives of the Poets, selection 
from Walton's, 14-15. 

Loose and lose, 114. 

May and can, 112-13. 
May and might, as principal 
verbs and as auxiliaries, 181. 
Metaphor, 105-9. 
Metonymy, 108-9. 

Narration, examples of, 3-17; 
exercises in, 3-18. 

Non-essential clauses, 201-2. 

Nouns, classes of, 141-42; 
number, 142-45; gender, 
145-47; case, 147-56; per- 
son, 148; parsing of, 156; 
exercise in substituting 
nouns for equivalent expres- 
sions, 121-22. 

Number, exercises in formation 
of singular and plural, 144- 
45 ; special cases of agree- 
ment in, 188-89. 

Object, of transitive verb, 153; 
secondary object, 154; re- 
tained object, 154; indirect 
object, 155. 

Omar and the Persian, 9-10. 

Pairs of words often confused, 

111-21. 
Paragraph, the, 19-26. 
Parenthesis, use of the, 62. 
Participle, forms and uses of, 

192. 
Parts of speech, table of, 135- 

36; exercise in words used 

as more than one part of 

speech, 137-39. 
Past tense, exercise in use of, 

184-85. 



INDEX 



289 



Period, uses of the, 54-55. 

Person and number of verbs, 
special cases of agreement 
in, 188-89. 

Personification, 107-8. 

Persuasion, 51. 

Phrase, defined, 139; phrases 
classified according to form 
and use, 226; adjectival, 
227; adverbial, 228-29; sub- 
stantive, 229-30; independ- 
ent, 230; exercise in chang- 
ing to clauses, 240-41. 

Practical problems, exercise in 
stating, 46-47. 

Predicate, defined, 132; com- 
plete predicate, 132-33; 
compound predicate, 135; 
predicate verb, 135. 

Predicate adjective, 168-69, 
171. 

Predicate nominative, 148. 

Prepositions, list of, 219; exer- 
cise in distinguishing from 
adverbs, 220; parsing of, 
220; exercise in use of, 117- 
19. 

Present perfect tense, exercise 
in use of, 184-85. 

Principal and principle, 113- 
14. 

Pronouns, classes of, 196; de- 
clension of personal, 196; 
possessive, 197; emphasizing 
or intensive, 198; reflexive, 
198; relative, 199-200, 204; 
indefinite relative, 205 ; in- 
terrogative, 205-6 ; demon- 
strative and indefinite, 207; 
parsing of, 207. 

Proverbs, exercise in illustrat- 
ing by narration, 13. 

Punctuation, exercises in, 57- 
59, 60, 63-64, 67-68. 

Question, direct and indirect, 

63, 205-6. 
Quotation, direct and indirect, 



defined and illustrated, 69- 
70; exercises, 70-74. 
Quotation marks, use of, 60-61. 

Redundant verbs, 158. 
Regular verbs, 158. 
Relative pronouns, 199-205. 
Return of Rip Van Winkle, 

The, 277-285. 
Rip Van Winkle, selection 

from, 13-14. 

Scott, Sir Walter, Letters 
and Recollections of, se- 
lection from, 11-12. 

Semicolon, uses of the, 58-59. 

Sentence, declarative, interrog- 
ative, exclamatory, non-ex- 
clamatory, 131; simple, 233; 
complex, 233; compound, 
238-39; exercises in sen- 
tence combination, 240-46 ; 
analysis of, 247-54. 

Shall and will, exercises in 
use of, 181, 183-84. 

Short speeches, exercises in 
making, 52. 

Simile, 105-7. 

Spelling, rules of, 94-98; ex- 
cises in, 95-103. 

Subject, defined, 132; complete 
subject, 132-33; compound 
subject, 135. 

Subjunctive mood, uses of, 
186-87. 

Tense, use of present perfect 

and past, 184-85. 
That, when preferred to who 

and which, zoz. 
Topic sentence, 23-26. 
Transitive verbs, 165-70. 

Verbs, regular and irregular, 
158; redundant and defec- 
tive, 158; principal parts of, 
158; transitive, 165-68, 170- 
71; voice, 166; intransitive, 
167-70; complete, 167; link- 



290 



INDEX 



ing, 167; auxiliary, 172; 
principal, 172; person and 
number, 172; mood, 173; 
tense, 174-75; conjugation, 
175; progressive form, 177- 
78 ; emphatic, interrogative, 
negative, forms, 181 ; parsing 
of, 194. 
Verbals, 190. 

Wooden Horse, The, 264-69. 

Words and word-formation, 

exercises in, m-27; pairs 



of words often confused, 
111-21; substitution of sin- 
gle words for equivalent ex- 
pressions, 121-25; formation 
of nouns from adjectives, 
125; of nouns from verbs, 
125 ; of nouns from other 
nouns, 126; of adjectives 
from nouns, 126; of adjec- 
tives from verbs, 126 ; of 
verbs from nouns, 126 ; of 
adjectives from other ad- 
jectives, 127. 



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